Datura quids at Pinwheel Cave, California, provide unambiguous confirmation of the ingestion of hallucinogens at a rock art site

Abstract

While debates have raged over the relationship between trance and rock art, unambiguous evidence of the consumption of hallucinogens has not been reported from any rock art site in the world. A painting possibly representing the flowers of Datura on the ceiling of a Californian rock art site called Pinwheel Cave was discovered alongside fibrous quids in the same ceiling. Even though Native Californians are historically documented to have used Datura to enter trance states, little evidence exists to associate it with rock art. A multianalytical approach to the rock art, the quids, and the archaeological context of this site was undertaken. Liquid chromatography−mass spectrometry (LC-MS) results found hallucinogenic alkaloids scopolamine and atropine in the quids, while scanning electron microscope analysis confirms most to be Datura wrightii. Three-dimensional (3D) analyses of the quids indicate the quids were likely masticated and thus consumed in the cave under the paintings. Archaeological evidence and chronological dating shows the site was well utilized as a temporary residence for a range of activities from Late Prehistory through Colonial Periods. This indicates that Datura was ingested in the cave and that the rock painting represents the plant itself, serving to codify communal rituals involving this powerful entheogen. These results confirm the use of hallucinogens at a rock art site while calling into question previous assumptions concerning trance and rock art imagery.

Alkaloids of the Genus Datura: Review of a Rich Resource for Natural Product Discovery

“…Profiling of Datura alkaloids using LC separations coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) has been performed on a variety of mass spectrometry platforms including triple-quadrupole [10], ion trap [65], hybrid triple-quad/linear ion trap [36], time-of-flight (ToF) [75], quadrupole time-of-flight (QToF) hybrid, or orbitrap instruments [32,36,77,85]. Ionization usually has involved electrospray ionization (ESI), although APCI (atmospheric pressure chemical ionization) has also been used [16,84].…”

“…The enzyme putrescine methyltransferase (PMT) [62,98] N-monomethylates putrescine to yield 15, which is then oxidatively deaminated by methylputrescine oxidase (MPO). The resultant unstable amino aldehyde (16) spontaneously cyclizes into N-methylpyrrolinium ion (17). This pyrrolinium species is electrophilic and can react with a variety of nucleophiles.…”

“…As this is often the case in the same cultures where it is used medicinally, remedy, magic, tradition, and religion are sometimes difficult to separate. Indigenous American peoples brewed Datura into tea or chewed parts of the plant, utilizing its hallucinogenic and euphorigenic properties in initiation, divination, or luck-bringing ceremonies, or to bring skill or strength prior to hunting [ 16 , 17 ]. In archeological sites in the Southwestern United States and Central America, ceramic forms resembling the spiky fruit of D. inoxia (or a similar species) were found [ 17 ], and in California, chewed masses of D. wrightii were found alongside cave paintings believed to represent the flower of this plant [ 16 ].…”

“…Indigenous American peoples brewed Datura into tea or chewed parts of the plant, utilizing its hallucinogenic and euphorigenic properties in initiation, divination, or luck-bringing ceremonies, or to bring skill or strength prior to hunting [ 16 , 17 ]. In archeological sites in the Southwestern United States and Central America, ceramic forms resembling the spiky fruit of D. inoxia (or a similar species) were found [ 17 ], and in California, chewed masses of D. wrightii were found alongside cave paintings believed to represent the flower of this plant [ 16 ]. Plants matching the description of D. metel appear in Hindu iconography depicting the god Shiva [ 18 ], while in Haiti, D. stramonium is associated with catatonia and zombies related to vodou [ 19 ].…”

The Reality of Casas Grandes Potters: Realistic Portraits of Spirits and Shamans

“…The Medio Period shamanic practice built on previous traditions found throughout West Mexico, northern Mexico, western Texas, and the preceding Mimbres Mogollon tradition (AD 1000 to 1115). These include shamanic traditions based on peyote, datura, tobacco, and other entheogens (Berlant et al 2017;Boyd 1996;Huckell and VanPool 2006;Robinson et al 2020). The type of shamanism practiced during the Medio Period may have spread into other areas of the Southwest.…”