Ice-Ice Disease in Commercially Cultivated Seaweeds Kappaphycus spp. and Eucheuma spp.: A Review on the Causes, Occurrence, and Control Measures

Abstract

Kappaphycus spp. and Eucheuma spp. are two economically significant seaweed species cultivated globally due to their carrageenan content with numerous commercial applications. They are mainly cultivated in the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Tanzania. The culture of these seaweeds also provides income sources for many coastal dwellers. In 2018, the total global production from these seaweeds was about 11 million tonnes. One of the primary problems that affect seaweed production is the incidence of iceice disease. In this article, we reviewed the reported scientific journals on the ice-ice disease of two commercially cultured seaweed species (Kappaphycus spp. and Eucheuma spp.), focusing mainly on causes, occurrence, and control measures. The ice-ice disease is caused by both abiotic and biotic factors manifested by the presence of white and soft parts in the infected seaweeds. The occurrence of this disease varies from species, places, and seasons. Control measures may include proper farm management, polyculture with other seaweeds, pre-soaking with antibacterial substances and nutrient enrichment before out-planting, and possibly using genetic engineering.

Use of Brown Seaweed Extracts as Bio-fertilizers and their Effects on the Carrageenan Yield, Ice-ice Disease Occurrence, and Growth Rate of the Red Seaweed Kappaphycus striatus

“…Also, AMPEP significantly increased the growth rate (7.3%) in K. alvarezii (Loureiro et al, 2014), relatively higher than our study. The ice-ice disease of Kappaphycus is usually associated with changes in environmental factors like light intensity, salinity, and temperature manifested with extensive whitening of the branches, which are further degraded by the presence of opportunistic bacteria (Largo et al, 1995a and1995b;Tahiluddin andTerzi, 2021a andTahiluddin et al, 2021c). Likewise, marine-derived fungi were reported to be a potential causative agent of this disease (Solis et al, 2010).…”

“…The genus of Kappaphycus is an economically important red seaweed cultured in both tropical and subtropical waters. This red seaweed is highly marketable worldwide owing to its carrageenan content, which is extensively utilized in food and non-food products as a binder, emulsifier, gelling, and YYU J AGR SCI 32 (2): 436-447 Tahiluddin et al / Use of Some Brown Seaweed Extracts as Bio-fertilizers and their Effects on the Ice-ice Disease Occurrence, Carrageenan Yield, and Growth Rate of the Red Seaweed Kappaphycus striatus thickening agents (Hurtado et al, 2000;Hurtado et al, 2015;Tahiluddin and Terzi, 2021a). The Philippines is a major seaweed producer, ranking fourth globally (FAO, 2020).…”

“…Another problem that hinders eucheumatoid production is the occurrence of ice-ice disease (Ward et al, 2022), which is typically characterized by the appearance of soft and white portions on the infected branches (Tahiluddin and Terzi, 2021a;. This disease is brought about by fluctuations of environmental parameters like light intensity, salinity, and temperature resulting in stress on the seaweeds, thus weakening its immune defense system against harmful bacteria Cytophaga-Flavobacterium and Vibrio-Aeromonas (Largo et al 1995a and1995b;Tahiluddin and Terzi, 2021a).…”

“…Another problem that hinders eucheumatoid production is the occurrence of ice-ice disease (Ward et al, 2022), which is typically characterized by the appearance of soft and white portions on the infected branches (Tahiluddin and Terzi, 2021a;. This disease is brought about by fluctuations of environmental parameters like light intensity, salinity, and temperature resulting in stress on the seaweeds, thus weakening its immune defense system against harmful bacteria Cytophaga-Flavobacterium and Vibrio-Aeromonas (Largo et al 1995a and1995b;Tahiluddin and Terzi, 2021a). In the Philippines, the occurrence of the ice-ice disease is widespread and caused a severe decline in the production of Kappaphycus species (Mendoza et al, 2002;Faisan et al, 2021); thus, it is considered a significant threat to the seaweed industry (Tahiluddin et al, 2021c).…”

Carrageenan From Kappaphycus alvarezii (Rhodophyta, Solieriaceae): Metabolism, Structure, Production, and Application

“…can quickly adhere to and dominate seaweed tissue as a first stage in the infection process, based on its motile capabilities ( Largo et al, 1995 , 1998 ). When exposed to harsh conditions, the bacteria can use carrageenan in seaweed thalli as a carbon source by reaching the medullary layer of diseased branches ( Tahiluddin and Terzi, 2021 ). A similar ability of Pseudoalteromonas carrageenovora to produce the specific κ -carrageenase enzyme and degrade κ -carrageenan in K. alvarezii suggested that this bacterium might cause “ice–ice” disease symptoms such as thalli whitening and scaling ( Riyaz et al, 2019 ).…”