Identifying important conservation areas for the clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa in a mountainous landscape: Inference from spatial modeling techniques

Abstract

The survival of large carnivores is increasingly precarious due to extensive human development that causes the habitat loss and fragmentation. Habitat selection is influenced by anthropogenic as well as environmental factors, and understanding these relationships is important for conservation management. We assessed the environmental and anthropogenic variables that influence site use of clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa in Bhutan, estimated their population density, and used the results to predict the species’ site use across Bhutan. We used a large camera‐trap dataset from the national tiger survey to estimate for clouded leopards, for the first time in Bhutan, (1) population density using spatially explicit capture–recapture models and (2) site‐use probability using occupancy models accounting for spatial autocorrelation. Population density was estimated at trueD^normalBayesian=0.40 (0.10 SD) and trueD^maximum−likelihood=0.30 (0.12 SE) per 100 km2. Clouded leopard site use was positively associated with forest cover and distance to river while negatively associated with elevation. Mean site‐use probability (from the Bayesian spatial model) was trueψ^normalspatial=0.448 (0.076 SD). When spatial autocorrelation was ignored, the probability of site use was overestimated, trueψ^normalnonspatial=0.826 (0.066 SD). Predictive mapping allowed us to identify important conservation areas and priority habitats to sustain the future of these elusive, ambassador felids and associated guilds. Multiple sites in the south, many of them outside of protected areas, were identified as habitats suitable for this species, adding evidence to conservation planning for clouded leopards in continental South Asia.

Multi‐scale habitat modelling identifies spatial conservation priorities for mainland clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa)

“…From 2008 to 2016, we deployed 2,948 camera stations across 45 sampling locations in nine countries spanning N. nebulosa's full range throughout South and Southeast Asia (Table ). Ten original sampling locations were surveyed by the Wildlife Conservation Research Unit (WildCRU, University of Oxford), 21 sites were contributed by collaborators in Bhutan (Penjor et al., ), nine sites in Peninsular Malaysia were contributed by Tan et al. (), and E. Ash (unpublished data) contributed surveys from five locations in Thailand.…”

“…There have been several local abundance estimates of N. nebulosa based on camera trapping. Estimated population densities for India (Singh & Macdonald, ), Myanmar (Naing, Ross, Burnham, Htun, & Macdonald, ), Bhutan (Penjor, Macdonald, Wangchuk, Tandin, & Tan, ) and Nepal (Can et al., ) range between 0.30 and 5.14 individuals/100 km 2 , and indicate general associations with forest habitats. These build on previous estimates of 4.73/100 km 2 in India (Borah et al., ) and 2.64 (L. Hedges, unpublished data) to 3.46/100 km 2 in Malaysia (Mohamad et al., ).…”

Habitat use of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) in Brazilian Amazon

“…In Malaysia, Tan et al. () used them to estimate habitat use of clouded leopards, as did Penjor, Macdonald, Wangchuk, Tandin, and Tan () in Bhutan. Camera trapping, although originally motivated by studies of large mammals, yielded data on ocelots (Figure ).…”

“…Data collection and surveys at most of our study areas were designed to study large mammals like jaguars, so our data on ocelots represent by-catch (except for the REMJ and RSUA dataset, see methods in Costa, Peres, & Abrahams, 2018). In Malaysia, Tan et al (2017) used them to estimate habitat use of clouded leopards, as did Penjor, Macdonald, Wangchuk, Tandin, and Tan (2018) in Bhutan. Camera trapping, although originally motivated by studies of large mammals, yielded data on ocelots ( Figure 2).…”

Vertical relief facilitates spatial segregation of a high density large carnivore population

“…Mountainous areas presently act as refugia for large Asian felids in many range states, often because such habitat presents obstacles to human inhabitation. However, they are under increasing pressure from multiple threats whose function and effect can vary along the elevation gradients (Jacobson et al 2016, Li et al 2018, Penjor et al 2018, Vitkalova et al 2018, Farhadinia et al 2019, Suryawanshi et al 2019. Therefore, understanding the dynamic interaction between species requirement and resource availability along the elevation gradient can effectively inform protection plans.…”