Imaging the Cardiovascular System: Seeing Is Believing

Abstract

From the basic light microscope through high-end imaging systems such as multiphoton confocal microscopy and electron microscopes, microscopy has been and will continue to be an essential tool in developing an understanding of cardiovascular development, function, and disease. In this review we briefly touch on a number of studies that illustrate the importance of these forms of microscopy in studying cardiovascular biology. We also briefly review a number of imaging modalities such as computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, and positron emission tomography (PET) that, although they do not fall under the realm of microscopy, are imaging modalities that greatly complement microscopy. Finally we examine the role of proper imaging system calibration and the potential importance of calibration in understanding biological tissues, such as the cardiovascular system, that continually undergo deformation in response to strain.

Cardiac Fibroblast-Dependent Extracellular Matrix Accumulation Is Associated with Diastolic Stiffness in Type 2 Diabetes

“…Data analysis was performed offline (PVAN, version 3.4, Millar Instruments). Echocardiographic measurements (Visual Sonics VEVO 770 Ultrasound System) were also performed prior to conductance catheter analysis as previously described [15]. Once assessments were completed, hearts were excised and either snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and then stored at −80°C until biochemical analysis could be performed or fixed in 2% paraformaldehyde for histology.…”

Confocal laser scanning microscopy. Using new technology to answer old questions in forensic investigations

“…and especially in the presence of pathological alterations (e.g. contraction band necrosis) provides the forensic pathologist with imaging possibilities that were unthinkable until a few years ago [13][14][15]. In recent years, clinical and medico-legal attention has focused on the genetic causes of sudden death [16,17].…”

Construction and Establishment of a New Environmental Chamber to Study Real-Time Cardiac Development

“…This is in contrast to all previous imaging techniques~i.e., video light microscopy, ultrasound, confocal and scanning electron microscopy, high resolution MRI, and optical coherence tomography! that we and others have used for imaging of the developing embryonic heart before~Kolker et al, 2000; Yelbuz et al, 2002aYelbuz et al, , 2002bYelbuz et al, , 2002cYelbuz et al, , 2003bYelbuz et al, , 2004Soufan et al, 2003;Efimov et al, 2004;Borg et al, 2005;Tutarel et al, 2005!. As cardiovascular physiology changes during embryonic development in a highly complex and carefully orchestrated manner, even minor negative factors or triggers could disrupt critical processes of heart development~De la Cruz & Markwald, 1998;Keller, 1998;Harvey & Rosenthal, 1999;Phoon, 2001;Tomanek & Runyan, 2001;Burggren & Warburton, 2005!. The major limitation in previous attempts to visualize the beating developing heart over short and long periods was that the embryos had to be moved repetitively from an conventional incubator to a special stage and reincubated~Leatherbury et al, 1990;Tomita et al, 1991;Conway et al, 1997;Yelbuz et al, 2002aYelbuz et al, , 2002bLi et al, 2003;Tutarel et al, 2005!.…”

“…In the past, various imaging techniques have been employed to visualize the intricate processes of cardiovascular development in two or three dimensions to achieve a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms for the genesis of congenital heart defects during embryonic development~Kolker et al, 2000;Yelbuz et al, 2002aYelbuz et al, , 2002bYelbuz et al, , 2002cYelbuz et al, , 2003bYelbuz et al, , 2004Soufan et al, 2003;Efimov et al, 2004;Borg et al, 2005;Tutarel et al, 2005!. However, in most of these studies cardiac development could not be continuously documented over long time periods because nonbeating embryonic hearts were used or in vivo studies were conducted with long time gaps between periods of image collection.…”