Immune effects of the neurotoxins ciguatoxins and brevetoxins

Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection

“…They may include peripheral symptoms as cold allodynia, itching or paresthesias in the extremities; and/or central signs such as headache, memory loss, depression, anxiety, confusion, hypersomnolence or fatigue, among others [ 62 , 68 , 90 ]. The mechanism of long-term permanence of ciguatera symptoms is unknown and several hypotheses have been proposed, among them, the accumulation in adipose tissue of lipophilic ciguatoxins, the involvement of a ciguatoxin-triggered inflammatory response or slow elimination/long persistence of ciguatoxin in peripheral nerves [ 91 ].…”

“…No toxicokinetics studies have addressed this issue [ 65 , 67 ]. In addition, ciguatoxin effect in ex vivo tissue preparations remains long after toxin washout, suggesting “quasi-irreversible” binding to the sodium channel [ 91 , 99 ]. The possibility of chronic exposure to ciguatoxins having a deleterious effect on human health should not be dismissed.…”

“…However, adverse respiratory effects reported during exposure to high BTXs levels include severe bronchoconstriction, mucosal irritation, cough and exacerbation of symptoms in people with asthma, which reflect the deposition of fine particles in the lower respiratory tract with subsequent irritant effects [ 122 ]. Healthy subjects rapidly reversed the respiratory disturbances by leaving the contaminated area, but in asthmatics these alterations may persist for several days [ 91 ]. In any case, most patients recover within 2 to 3 days without long term or chronic effects [ 114 ].…”

“…Mammalian studies have explored acute toxicity, therefore, little is known about the effects of chronic and subchronic exposure to brevetoxins [ 113 , 119 ]. In addition to the neurotoxic actions, brevetoxins are respiratory irritants that elicit an inflammatory response [ 91 , 126 ]. However, the persistence of respiratory disturbances after BTXs inhalation, which affects only asthmatic subjects, may involve neuroimmune interactions.…”

Neurological Disturbances of Ciguatera Poisoning: Clinical Features and Pathophysiological Basis

“…In addition, unusual cases of chronic inflammatory conditions such as polymyositis and arthritis occurring months or years following CFP have been reported [ 92 , 93 , 94 ]. Whether these are related to CTX immune effects or immune parameter dysfunctions found in CFP patients remains to be clarified [ 95 , 96 , 97 ]. In addition, a few case reports or studies have documented repercussions on the mind and cognitive functions, including a tendency to develop depression, in CFP cases with chronic symptoms [ 98 , 99 , 100 ].…”