Immunobiology and immunotherapy of COVID‐19: A clinically updated overview

Abstract

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) is a new member of the coronavirus family that can cause coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19). COVID‐9 has become a global pandemic with severe health issues around the world. Identifying the accurate immunopathogenesis of the COVID‐19 and the immune response against SARS‐CoV‐2 is necessary for the development of therapeutic approaches and rational drug design. This paper aims to overview the updated clinical data on the immunopathogenesis of the COVID‐19 and review the innate and adaptive immune response to SARS‐CoV‐2. Also, challenges of the immune response to SARS‐CoV‐2 leading to dysfunctional immune response and their contribution to the progression of the disease have been discussed. To achieve a more efficient immune response, multiple methods could be applied, including regulation of the immune response, augmentation of the immune system against the virus, inhibition of the dysfunctional immune checkpoints, and inhibition of the viral replication/infection. Based on the immune response against SARS‐CoV‐2 and its dysfunction, we introduce potential immunotherapies as well as reviewing recruiting/completed clinical trials of COVID‐19.

COVID‐19: Virology, biology and novel laboratory diagnosis

“…94,95 Serological tests could be specific to one type of immunoglobulin, they can concurrently measure IgM and IgG antibodies, or they may be absolute antibody examinations, which often measure IgA antibodies. 96 Based on the specific procedure and device, these experiments will usually be carried out within 1-2 hours after a sample arrives in the laboratory and is loaded onto the appropriate platform. 97 Guo et al 98 is higher than that of qPCR after 5.5 days of symptom onset.…”

Renal Injury by SARS-CoV-2 Infection: A Systematic Review

“…Subsequently, the cellular adaptive immune response is initiated. Helper T (Th) cells can be induced to differentiate into Th1 cells and Th2 cells; the former can activate cytotoxic T cells, which destroy virus-contaminated cells, just like natural killer (NK) cells; then, Th2 cells assist B lymphocytes in producing antibodies that inhibit viral replication [ 35 , 36 ]. This is the immune clearance process of anti-infection after SARS-CoV-2 invasion, accompanied by the production and release of various inflammatory cytokines, which assist the innate and adaptive immune response by participating in the process of the body's antiviral activity.…”

Immunotherapies and immunomodulatory approaches in clinical trials - a mini review

“…157 So numerous immunotherapeutics are being explored in COVID-19 therapy. [158][159][160] Currently, the immunotherpeutics being evaluated in COVID-19 therapy are still under clinical trials as detailed in Table 1 and none has been approved fully yet for treatment of COVID-19. However many trials are in final stages of evaluation and in coming times there are hopes for developing safe and effective immunotherapeutics against COVID-19.…”

“…However many trials are in final stages of evaluation and in coming times there are hopes for developing safe and effective immunotherapeutics against COVID-19. [158][159][160]…”