Immunosensors for Biomarker Detection in Autoimmune Diseases

Abstract

Autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system generates proinflammatory molecules and autoantibodies that mistakenly attack their own body. Traditional diagnosis of autoimmune disease is primarily based on physician assessment combined with core laboratory tests. However, these tests are not sensitive enough to detect early molecular events, and quite often, it is too late to control these autoimmune diseases and reverse tissue damage when conventional tests show positivity for disease. It is fortunate that during the past decade, research in nanotechnology has provided enormous opportunities for the development of ultrasensitive biosensors in detecting early biomarkers with high sensitivity. Biosensors consist of a biorecognition element and a transducer which are able to facilitate an accurate detection of proinflammatory molecules, autoantibodies and other disease-causing molecules. Apparently, novel biosensors could be superior to traditional metrics in assessing the drug efficacy in clinical trials, especially when specific biomarkers are indicative of the pathogenesis of disease. Furthermore, the portability of a biosensor enables the development of point-of-care devices. In this review, various types of biomolecule sensing systems, including electrochemical, optical and mechanical sensors, and their applications and future potentials in autoimmune disease treatment were discussed.

Autoantibodies as Potential Biomarkers in Breast Cancer

“…Several technologies such as immunosensors, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), antigen arrays, and bead arrays have been applied to the detection of autoantibodies in breast cancer patients. Immunosensors have been demonstrated to detect autoantibodies in autoimmune disease and have the potential for similar detection of autoantibodies in breast cancer [ 58 ]. ELISA, the more traditional immunological assay, has been successfully used to measure the concentration of autoantibodies in breast cancer patients ( Table 1 ).…”

“…There is no doubt that individual assays, such as ELISA, immunosensors [ 58 ], or multiplexing bead-based autoantibody assays are important tools for the detection and validation of the level of specific autoantibodies as biomarkers, especially in large cohorts of patients for diagnosis and disease monitoring of breast cancer, as illustrated in Figure 2 .…”

Nanoparticle-based Point of Care Immunoassays for in vitro Biomedical Diagnostics

“…[13][14][15][16] To address the diagnostics hurdles, and to enhance the sensitivity of the assay, nanoparticles-based immunoassays have been reported, which rely on the unique properties of nanoparticles and have improved detection limit up to 1000 times. [17][18][19][20]…”

Construction and Potential Applications of Biosensors for Proteins in Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis

“…As known, antibody expression in human blood can be considered as an indicator of disease generation, development and recovery [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. In some circumstances, serum antibodies show better stability and higher concentrations in early stages than the relevant original virus, antigens, and cells [ 5 ] and thus could be considered as more efficient biomarkers for disease diagnosis and real-time monitoring.…”

“…For example, IgE can induce type I hypersensitivity, and specific IgEs are detected for the determination of allergens. Autoimmune diseases (AIDs) are a series of diseases that occur as a result of the loss of immunologic tolerance to self-antigens, showing various cases with common characteristics [ 4 ]. Each AID has a characteristic antibody spectrum that can be objectively evaluated as an indicator for disease prediction, early diagnosis, and prognosis [ 13 ].…”