Indigenous Communities and Social Enterprise in Canada

Abstract

This article seeks to understand Indigenous social enterprise in a "current state snapshot" and in a complex historical context. Specifically, the authors begin by placing into theoretical context social enterprises serving Indigenous communities. The framework for Indigenous social enterprise is related to theories of Indigenous entrepreneurship and "quadruple bottom line" organizations. The authors explain the role of culture as an underresearched element and as a critical component of Indigenous social enterprise. The article also highlights gender leadership of social enterprise in Indigenous communities. Finally, the article provides three case studies that exemplify Indigenous social enterprise in Canada. RÉSUMÉDans cet article, les auteurs cherchent à comprendre les entreprises sociales autochtones dans leur état actuel ainsi que dans la complexité de leur contexte historique. Plus précisément, les auteurs commencent leur article en situant dans un contexte théorique particulier les entreprises sociales desservant les communautés autochtones. Le cadre utilisé pour décrire ces entreprises a des liens avec des théories sur l'entreprenariat autochtone et sur les organisations à quadruple résultat. Ensuite, les auteurs représentent la culture comme étant à la fois un élément insuffisamment étudié et une composante critique de l'entreprise sociale dans un milieu autochtone. D'autre part, ils rendent compte de la prédominance des leaders féminins dans ces entreprises. Finalement, ils présentent trois études de cas illustrant l'entreprise sociale autochtone au Canada.

Aboriginal entrepreneurship financing in Canada

“…The lack of an appropriate "fit" of conventional entrepreneurship methods and practices and its subsequent failures in Aboriginal contexts has been documented in theoretical and empirical literature (Kuokkanen, 2011;Peredo and McLean, 2010;Pinto and Blue, 2015;Sengupta et al, 2015). Those considering entrepreneurship to be "a potential instrument of relief from endemic poverty and disadvantage have all too often been captive to a concept of entrepreneurship that is built out of narrow economic and cultural assumptions" (Peredo and McLean, 2010, p. 593) have failed to explore alternative models with considerable promise.…”

“…In recent years, market-based conceptions of entrepreneurship have been challenged, and various scholars and entrepreneurs have offered a "social entrepreneurship" conception (Sengupta et al, 2015). Social entrepreneurship challenges the sole profit motive characteristic of market-based entrepreneurship and recognizes that non-economic outcomes can drive entrepreneurial activities and successes -especially in the form of successful nonprofit ventures.…”

“…A "triple bottom line" recognizes three measures of success: economic (profit/ loss/net worth), social (e.g. socially just treatment of employees) and environmental (Elkington, 1997;Pinto and Blue, 2015;Sengupta et al, 2015). Quadruple bottom line accounting adds a fourth measure, culture (Scrimgeour and Iremonger, 2004).…”

“…Together, the nine tenants of TribalCrit reveal that the enactment of traditional, market-based entrepreneurship for Aboriginal communities is highly problematic because it perpetuates an economic system that served as the driving force behind colonialism (Kuokkanen, 2011;Sengupta et al, 2015). Rather, entrepreneurial development ought to be based on social and cultural values to yield positive, lasting results (Sengupta et al, 2015). Aboriginal entrepreneurship rooted in AE and IK leads to alternative organizational forms and futures that are relevant and beneficial to not only Aboriginal communities but also all (Sengupta et al, 2015).…”

Indigenous works and two eyed seeing: mapping the case for indigenous-led research

“…Proactive community strategies are often implemented using a wide variety of ventures to address diverse socio-economic issues, such as healthcare, economic development, infrastructure, education, housing, culture and language revitalization (Colbourne, 2017). These activities build on growing global support for Indigenous rights and self-determination combined with new ways of pursuing reconciliation and increasing well-being based on traditional principles (Gladu, 2016; Sengupta et al , 2015). Development activities within Indigenous communities are manifested by Indigenous-led organizations and ventures that are characterized by size, impact, diversity in where they are located, how they are governed and organized and in how their strategies respond to or resonate with community values and socio-economic needs (Colbourne, 2017; Hindle and Moroz, 2010; Anderson et al , 2004, 2006; Lindsay, 2005; Peredo et al , 2004).…”