Induction of oxidative and nitrosative damage leads to cerebrovascular inflammation in an animal model of mild traumatic brain injury induced by primary blast

Abstract

We investigate the hypothesis that oxidative damage of the cerebral vascular barrier interface (the blood brain barrier, BBB) causes the development of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) during primary blast wave spectrum. The underlying biochemical and cellular mechanisms of this vascular layer-structure injury are examined in a novel animal model of shock tube. We first established that low frequency (123 kPa) single or repeated shock wave causes BBB/brain injury through biochemical activation by acute mechanical force that occurs at 6–24 hrs after the exposure. This biochemical damage of the cerebral vasculature is initiated by the induction of free radical generating enzymes NADPH oxidase (NOX1) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Induction of these enzymes by shock wave exposure correlated well with the signatures of oxidative and nitrosative damage (4HNE/3NT) and reduction of the BBB tight junction (TJ) proteins occludin, claudin-5 and zonula occluden 1 (ZO-1) in the brain microvessel. In parallel with TJ protein disruption, the perivascular unit was significantly diminished by single or repeated shock wave exposure coinciding with the kinetic profile. Loosening of the vasculature and perivascular unit was mediated by oxidative stress-induced activation of matrix metalloproteinases and fluid channel aquaporin-4, promoting vascular fluid cavitation/edema, enhanced leakiness of the BBB and progression of neuroinflammation. The BBB leakiness and neuroinflammation were functionally demonstrated in an in vivo model by enhanced permeability of Na-Fl/EB low molecular weight tracers and the infiltration of immune cells across the BBB. The detection of brain cell matters NSE/S100β in the blood samples validated the neuro-astroglial injury in shock wave TBI. Our hypothesis that cerebral vascular injury occurring prior to the development of neurological disorders in mild TBI was further confirmed by the activation of caspase-3 and cell apoptosis mostly around the perivascular region. Thus, induction of oxidative stress and MMPs activation by shock wave underlies the mechanisms of cerebral vascular BBB leakage and neuroinflammation.

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