Infants’ response to a mobile phone modified still‐face paradigm: Links to maternal behaviors and beliefs regarding technoference

Abstract

Interruptions to parent–child interactions due to technology, or “technoference,” have been correlated with a host of negative child developmental outcomes. Yet, the influence of technoference on parent–infant interactions and infant behaviors has received less attention and more experimental work is warranted. For this study, parent–infant dyads (n = 227) completed a modified still‐face paradigm (SFP) using a mobile phone during the still‐face phase. Infant responses were coded for positive and negative affect, object and parent orientation, self‐comforting, and escape behaviors during the task. Results showed a robust still‐face effect, with infants displaying increased negative affect, decreased positive affect, increased self‐comforting, object orientation, and escape behaviors during the “still‐face” or phone distracted phase of the paradigm and frequently failing to return to baseline during the reunion phase. Older infants (older than 9 months) likewise demonstrated higher levels of negative affect across all three phases of the paradigm relative to younger infants (less than 9 months). Parent reports of technoference behavior were related to increased object orientation for younger infants. Parental technoference behaviors were also linked to more escape behaviors for younger infants and decreased object orientation in older infants during the still‐face portion of the SFP. Higher levels of technoference also appear to attenuate the negative emotional response of infants during still face. Results are discussed in relation to infants’ increasing exposure to digital technology in the context of early relationships.

Smartphones in the nursery: Parental smartphone use and parental sensitivity and responsiveness within parent–child interaction in early childhood (0–5 years): A scoping review

“…A second group of studies regarding the impact of parental smartphone use on parents’ sensitivity and responsiveness has been conducted in laboratory settings, applying an experimental design including smartphone‐induced interruptions of parent–child interactions (Khourochvili, 2017; Kildare, 2017; Myruski et al., 2018; Rothstein, 2018; Stockdale et al., 2020; Ventura, Levy, & Sheeper, 2019).…”

“…Several experimental studies used an adapted version of the original still‐face experiment (Khourochvili, 2017; Kildare, 2017; Myruski et al., 2018; Stockdale et al., 2020). Instead of unresponsively looking at their children during the still‐face phase of the experiment, mothers were asked to either focus on their devices (Myruski et al., 2018), type the alphabet on them (Kildare, 2017), or answer questions from the researchers on their smartphones (Khourochvili, 2017).…”

“…Regarding the questions of long‐term effects of parental smartphone use on parents’ sensitivity and responsiveness and on child adaptation to it, it seems important to more systematically take into account habitual parental smartphone use. Some of the experimental smartphone‐adapted still‐face studies, that did take into account the amount of daily parental mobile technology use, reported that infants of parents with a higher amount of habitual mobile technology use tended to be more distressed by their mothers’ disengagement in the experiment (Myruski et al., 2018; Stockdale et al., 2020). However, some infants of mothers with a high habitual smartphone use were less easily disturbed through maternal device use while breastfeeding (Ventura et al., 2019) and older infants (>9 months) showed a reduction of negative emotional reactions (Stockdale et al., 2020), which brings to mind the adaptations infants of depressed mothers show in the still‐face experiment, such as an increase of positive affect (Graham et al., 2018).…”

“…Some parents used their smartphones for a considerable amount of time while spending time with their children on playgrounds and in eateries (e.g., Elias et al., 2020) or reported a high daily technology use time while spending time with their children (Stockdale et al., 2020). What predisposes some parents to use their phones over extended time periods in the presence of their children?…”

“…Myruski et al (2018) found that children of mothers with a high amount of daily smartphone use were more reserved and less explorative during free play and reunion, and the reunion itself was also less successful. In the study of Stockdale et al (2020), parents self-reported their daily amount of technoference and their beliefs about using smartphones in front of their infants. Younger infants (under 9 months of age) of parents who reported a high amount of technoference and who believed it was okay to use the smartphone in front of the infant showed more signs of distress during the modified still-face procedure, whereas older infants (over 9 months of age) showed a decrease in signs of distress and attenuated negative affect.…”