Inflammation, Peripheral Signals and Redox Homeostasis in Athletes Who Practice Different Sports

Abstract

The importance of training in regulating body mass and performance is well known. Physical training induces metabolic changes in the organism, leading to the activation of adaptive mechanisms aimed at establishing a new dynamic equilibrium. However, exercise can have both positive and negative effects on inflammatory and redox statuses. In recent years, attention has focused on the regulation of energy homeostasis and most studies have reported the involvement of peripheral signals in influencing energy and even inflammatory homeostasis due to overtraining syndrome. Among these, leptin, adiponectin, ghrelin, interleukin-6 (IL6), interleukin-1β (IL1β) and tumour necrosis factor a (TNFa) were reported to influence energy and even inflammatory homeostasis. However, most studies were performed on sedentary individuals undergoing an aerobic training program. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to focus on high-performance exercise studies performed in athletes to correlate peripheral mediators and key inflammation markers with physiological and pathological conditions in different sports such as basketball, soccer, swimming and cycling.

Relationships between Sex and Adaptation to Physical Exercise in Young Athletes: A Pilot Study

“…Excessive training and effort could lead to chronic fatigue and muscle damage, with lower performance. Therefore, these adaptive mechanisms are the result of a fine balance between: (i) oxidative stress/inflammation induced by exercise that increases performance and health, and (ii) oxidative stress due to excessive effort that causes fatigue and muscle damage [ 2 ]. In this context, the role of oxidative stress and hormone signalling linked to inflammation appears to be crucial for adaptation [ 2 ].…”

“…Therefore, these adaptive mechanisms are the result of a fine balance between: (i) oxidative stress/inflammation induced by exercise that increases performance and health, and (ii) oxidative stress due to excessive effort that causes fatigue and muscle damage [ 2 ]. In this context, the role of oxidative stress and hormone signalling linked to inflammation appears to be crucial for adaptation [ 2 ]. Elite athletes have a very strong antioxidant defence system that guarantees free radical detoxification during acute exercise and recovery and, at the same time, the regulation of several hormones ensures adaptation [ 3 , 4 ].…”

Redox Homeostasis and Metabolic Profile in Young Female Basketball Players during in-Season Training

“…In elite athletes, there is large disparity among different training protocols and the effects on oxidative stress and inflammatory cytokines are still not well known. In a previous review, we concluded that chronic training seems to be responsible for some perturbations in different metabolic hormones linked to inflammation and to plasma redox homeostasis [ 1 ]. Therefore, the correct training program is essential.…”

“…Prolonged intense physical activity could increase muscle damage that, in professional athletes, could lead to perturbations in several metabolic hormones related to inflammation. Adiponectin is a signaling hormone with an anti-inflammatory effect and its plasma level is modified by training [ 1 ]. Several studies conducted in women reported a high level of plasma adiponectin compared with men, as well as a positive correlation seen between circulating adiponectin and whole-body insulin sensitivity in women [ 9 ].…”

Bioelectrical Phase Angle, Muscle Damage Markers and Inflammatory Response After a Competitive Match in Professional Soccer Players

“…Biochemical markers of muscle damage and inflammation are usually monitored to study and optimize recovery after exercise. Creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) are two of the most common markers of direct muscle damage [1,6,7] and, according to Nowakowska et al [8], CK and LDH together with aspartate aminotransferase and creatinine levels could constitute a useful set of markers for monitoring recovery periods in soccer players. Among the large number of biochemical markers of inflammation, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP) are two of the most frequently used in sport [5,6,7].…”