Inflammatory Diseases and Growth: Effects on the GH–IGF Axis and on Growth Plate

Abstract

This review briefly describes the most common chronic inflammatory diseases in childhood, such as cystic fibrosis (CF), inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA), and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) that can be considered, as such, for the changes reported in the placenta and cord blood of these subjects. Changes in growth hormone (GH) secretion, GH resistance, and changes in the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) system are described mainly in relationship with the increase in nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Changes in the growth plate are also reported as well as a potential role for microRNAs (miRNAs) and thus epigenetic changes in chronic inflammation. Many mechanisms leading to growth failure are currently known; however, it is clear that further research in the field is still warranted.

Caffeine, a Risk Factor for Osteoarthritis and Longitudinal Bone Growth Inhibition

“…Longitudinal bone growth is a process that takes places from the fetal period to adolescence [12,15]. This growth is mediated by chondrocyte proliferation, condensation, and differentiation in the growth plate during a process called endochondral ossification (EO) [9,10,12,16,17] (Figure 2). Interestingly, a similar process has also been observed in certain types of bone fracture healing [9].…”

“…The process of longitudinal bone growth is modulated by the same physiological and pathological factors that regulate the articular cartilage [12]. Likewise, several pathological conditions and pharmacological treatments, such as inflammatory diseases and glucocorticoids (GC) therapy, also affect longitudinal bone growth and have been linked to growth retardation [11,12,15,[18][19][20][21][22].…”

“…Growth retardation is one of the main complications among children who suffer from chronic inflammatory diseases [12,23]. The complications derived from a long-term inflammatory state on bone growth are not limited to growth retardation.…”

“…Hyaline cartilage is also found in the embryonic stages of endochondral bones and in the growth plate, where it plays a crucial role in the longitudinal growth of long bones. Moreover, [7,11,12]. Among the diverse pathologies that affect this type of cartilage, chronic inflammatory diseases stand out.…”

“…Among the diverse pathologies that affect this type of cartilage, chronic inflammatory diseases stand out. These diseases have a negative impact on bone development, with a prevalence of bone alterations between 17% and 40% [7,11,12].…”