Influence of Fused Deposition Modelling Nozzle Temperature on the Rheology and Mechanical Properties of 3D Printed β-Tricalcium Phosphate (TCP)/Polylactic Acid (PLA) Composite

Abstract

The primary goal of this study is to develop and analyze 3D printed structures based on a well-known composite known as β-Tricalcium Phosphate (TCP)– polylactic acid (PLA). There are some interesting aspects of this study. First, we developed 3D printable TCP–PLA composite filaments in-house, with high reproducibility, by a one-step process method using a single screw extruder. Second, we explored the physicochemical properties of the developed TCP–PLA composite filaments. Third, we investigated the effect of an FDM-based nozzle temperature of 190 °C, 200 °C, 210 °C, and 220 °C on the composite’s crystallinity and rheological and mechanical properties. Results confirmed the successful development of constant-diameter TCP–PLA composite filaments with a homogeneous distribution of TCP particles in the PLA matrix. We observed that a higher nozzle temperature in the FDM process increased the crystallinity of the printed PLA and TCP–PLA structures. As a result, it also helped to enhance the mechanical properties of the printed structures. The rheological studies were performed in the same temperature range used in the actual FDM process, and results showed an improvement in rheological properties at higher nozzle temperatures. The bare polymer and the composite polymer-ceramic melts exhibited lower viscosity and less rigidity at higher nozzle temperatures, which resulted in enhancing the polymer melt flowability and interlayer bonding between the printed layers. Overall, our results confirmed that 3D printable TCP–PLA filaments could be made in-house, and optimization of the nozzle temperature is essential to developing 3D printed composite parts with favorable mechanical properties.

3D-Printed Piezoelectric Porous Bioactive Scaffolds and Clinical Ultrasonic Stimulation Can Help in Enhanced Bone Regeneration

“…It is well known that the incorporation of excess secondary phases in polymer composites can hamper the polymer’s inherent mechanical properties. Moreover, including ceramic particles in polymers can increase the brittleness of the composites [ 23 , 24 ]. The excess secondary materials can form agglomerations in the matrix, disrupting the efficient load/stress transfer between the ceramic particles and the matrix.…”

“…In FFF, the printed layers are glued to each other layer by layer to develop the final material; this process of product manufacturing can significantly influence the mechanical properties of the manufactured parts, especially when the print parameters and orientations are incorrect. Even though optimizing the 3D-printing parameters to achieve a robust 3D-printed part was not the scope of this study, our extensive experience in 3D printing of various polymers and composites [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 23 , 24 , 40 ] helped us achieve mechanically robust 3D-printed parts. To highlight, the 3D-printed PCL-25BT specimen’s mechanical properties were similar to the PCL-BT specimen (with 20 wt.% BaTiO 3 ) that was developed by conventional compression molding [ 39 ].…”

“…Importantly, it involves much less material wastage than SLS or binder-jet printing. Our research group used the FFF to develop various design-specific, regenerative implants comprising novel and bespoke polymer–ceramic compositions [ 23 , 24 ].…”

Low-Cost Cranioplasty—A Systematic Review of 3D Printing in Medicine

“…FDM was invented in 1988 by Scott Crump—a co-founder of Stratasys ® [ 39 ]. This method is extrusion-based, where thermoplastic polymers in the form of filaments are wound on spools and are fed to the printer’s nozzle, where, after heating and melting, are subsequently selectively distributed layer-by-layer in accordance with the outline of the geometric model previously processed by the 3D-printing software ( Chart 2 ) [ 40 , 41 ]. The characteristic of printing depends on the material’s dropping pressure, size of the nozzle, as well as the rate of feeding [ 42 , 43 ].…”

Preparation of a novel regenerated silk fibroin-based hydrogel for extrusion bioprinting

“…16 In the extrusionbased 3D bioprinting process, the bioink performs a crucial role as its rheological properties, biochemical characteristics, and material traits significantly affect the printability and functionality of 3D bioprinting. [17][18][19] A wide variety of materials have been developed for extrusion-based bioprinting inks, including ceramics, 20 glass, 21 synthetic polymers, 22 and natural polymers. 23,24 Proteins are important components of cells, extracellular matrix, and a variety of biological structures, and therefore protein-based inks are expected to reduce immune reactions and aid material and host integration.…”