Influence of the Menstrual Cycle on the Oral Microbial Flora in Women: A Case‐Control Study Including Men as Control Subjects

Abstract

During a menstruation period, cyclic variation in the subgingival microbiota of periodontally healthy women of child-bearing age who were not using oral hormonal contraceptives could not be confirmed. Male control subjects presented with higher levels of many species but also without a cyclic pattern.

Effect of cigarette smoking on subgingival bacteria in healthy subjects and patients with chronic periodontitis

“…The prevalence of smoking in Jordanian men is reported to be in the range of 56.9–62% compared to 11.0–11.4% in women [29, 30]. The effect of gender on the subgingival bacterial flora is controversial; several studies conducted on periodontitis patients have reported a difference in the bacterial profile between males and females [31, 32], while other studies have reported that gender has no effect on the subgingival bacterial profile in CP patients or in healthy controls [33, 34]. The PPD was significantly higher in healthy non-smokers compared to smokers; this increase is most likely related to increased age among the non-smokers.…”

Effects of Menstrual Cycle on Periodontal Health and Gingival Crevicular Fluid Markers

“…A relationship between female sex hormone levels and periodontal changes during puberty, pregnancy, and menopause has been postulated, but there are a limited number of studies investigating the effects of menstrual cycle on periodontal health 10,16 . The changes in gingival tissues occurring during menstrual phases of women could be related to the changes in inflammatory markers in gingival crevicular fluid (GCF).…”

The Impact of Oral Contraceptives on Women's Periodontal Health and the Subgingival Occurrence of Aggressive Periodontopathogens and Candida Species

“…Interestingly, the levels of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans (previously Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans ) reportedly increased between the onset of menstruation and 2 weeks ( P <0.05). These differences were not significant at the P <0.001 level set in the aforementioned study 13 …”

“…Such polymorphonucleocyte hormonal‐induced impairment may translate into gingival inflammation 12 . A recent study 13 could not confirm a specific cyclic pattern of bacterial colonization in a group of 20 systemically and periodontally healthy females who were not taking OCs during one full menstrual cycle. Interestingly, the levels of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans (previously Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans ) reportedly increased between the onset of menstruation and 2 weeks ( P <0.05).…”