“…Educational effectiveness research regularly uses student test scores as dependent variables in statistical models (e. g., Klieme, 2018;Marsh et al, 2012). However, the assumption that the individual-level student outcome measures are indeed sensitive to classroom-level teaching is scarcely substantiated in effectiveness research, although researchers have regularly asserted the need for evidence of instructional sensitivity (e. g., Naumann, Musow, Aichele, Hochweber & Hartig, 2019;Popham, 2007). Recent studies have found the association of teaching measures and student achievement to vary across different tests (e. g., Grossman, Cohen, Ronfeldt & Brown, 2014;Polikoff, 2016).…”