Integrated Photonics on Glass: A Review of the Ion-Exchange Technology Achievements

Broquin, Jean-Emmanuel; Honkanen, Seppo

doi:10.3390/app11104472

Cited by 27 publications

(16 citation statements)

References 89 publications

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“…However, the development of integrated optics was hampered for many years by the lack of appropriate material platforms, i.e., homogeneous waveguide layers with high refractive indexes and low optical losses. At that time, an important role in the development of integrated optics was played by gradient-index waveguides fabricated by using ion exchange in glass [ 31 , 32 ], and metal-diffused optical waveguides in lithium niobate (LiNbO 3 ) [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. These technologies contributed to the development of measurement methods as well as analysis and design methods of integrated optics systems.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sol-Gel Derived Silica-Titania Waveguide Films for Applications in Evanescent Wave Sensors—Comprehensive Study

et al. 2022

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Composite silica-titania waveguide films of refractive index ca. 1.8 are fabricated on glass substrates using a sol-gel method and dip-coating technique. Tetraethyl orthosilicate and tetraethyl orthotitanate with molar ratio 1:1 are precursors. Fabricated waveguides are annealed at 500 °C for 60 min. Their optical properties are studied using ellipsometry and UV-Vis spectrophotometry. Optical losses are determined using the streak method. The material structure and chemical composition, of the silica-titania films are analyzed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and electron dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), respectively. The surface morphology was investigated using atomic force microscopy (AFM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) methods. The results presented in this work show that the waveguide films are amorphous, and their parameters are stable for over a 13 years. The optical losses depend on their thickness and light polarization. Their lowest values are less than 0.06 dB cm−1. The paper presents the results of theoretical analysis of scattering losses on nanocrystals and pores in the bulk and interfaces of the waveguide film. These results combined with experimental data clearly indicate that light scattering at the interface to a glass substrate is the main source of optical losses. Presented waveguide films are suitable for application in evanescent wave sensors.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Sol-Gel Derived Silica-Titania Waveguide Films for Applications in Evanescent Wave Sensors—Comprehensive Study

et al. 2022

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“…15,16 Furthermore, ion-exchanged waveguides are intended for classical/quantum optical communications and sensing. 17,18 The refractive index of Ag + /Na + ion-exchanged glasses depends on the concentration of Ag + s introduced into the glass matrix. 4−7 Ag + s, driven into the glass matrix from molten salt by a thermal process, penetrate a few micrometers into the glass matrix, but they are not often uniformly distributed through the glass.…”

Section: ■ Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…The IE process increases the refractive index of the glass due to the formation of silver clusters in the glass matrix. ,, The high refractive index glasses are excellent candidates for designing solid-state lasers and creating broadband optical waveguides, which are utilized in integrated optical circuits. − Ion-exchanged waveguides are also used to couple light into the photonic structure, such as plasmons in array gratings and slab. , Furthermore, ion-exchanged waveguides are intended for classical/quantum optical communications and sensing. , …”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Coupling Light in Ion-Exchanged Waveguides by Silver Nanoparticle-Based Nanogratings: Manipulating the Refractive Index of Waveguides

Aslani

Talebi

Vashaee

2022

ACS Appl. Nano Mater.

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We report the fabrication and properties of ion-exchanged optical waveguides based on low-cost soda-lime glasses embedded with silver ions and nanoparticles. Using the thermal ion-exchange process, we embed silver ions into soda-lime glasses by covering the glasses with different ratios of AgNO3:NaNO3 molten salt (2:98, 4:96, and 6:94) at 350 °C. The ion-exchanged glasses containing silver nanoparticles were characterized by using X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, UV–visible spectroscopy, the X-ray diffraction technique, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy of the surface. It is shown that the ion-exchanged glasses make low-loss optical waveguides. Furthermore, we evaluate the refractive index of ion-exchanged waveguides by laser coupling into the waveguide. For this purpose, the ion-exchanged glasses were coated with a silver chloride thin film loaded with silver nanoparticles (Ag-AgCl). When the Ag-AgCl layer is irradiated by a polarized coherent light beam, silver nanograting is formed on the surface of the ion-exchanged glass, and the light beam is simultaneously coupled into the glass. The line-space of nanograting determines the effective refractive index of the ion-exchanged glass. Although we expected the sample with the highest ratio of AgNO3:NaNO3 salt (6:94) to have the largest refractive index, our results demonstrate that the ion-exchanged sample with 4% AgNO3 has the largest effective refractive index, which is due to the penetration of more silver ions and nanoparticles in the glass matrix. Therefore, it is further demonstrated that using a Ag-AgCl layer on an ion-exchanged waveguide is an effective method for coupling light into the waveguides and measuring its refractive index. The mentioned coupling technique in combination with easily fabricated ion-exchanged waveguide has served as an excellent platform for applications in integrated optical circuits.

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“…In 1905 R. W. Wood described one of the earliest approaches for realizing a GRIN profile, referred to at the time as a "pseudo-lens", based on diffusing glycerin into a cylindrical slab of gelatin. [15] More recently, bottom-up refractive index control has been achieved by ionic exchange (Δn ≤ 0.1), [16,17] in photothermorefractive glass (Δn < 0.001), [18] photo-annealed organic/inorganic hybrids (Δn ≈ 0.05), [19] by electrospray printing of chalcogenide glass films (Δn ≤ 0.4), [20] densification of Si or TiO 2 based nanocomposites in UV curable films (Δn ≤ 0.45), [21,22] infrared glassceramics and nanocomposites (Δn ≤ 0.1), [23][24][25][26] and electrochemically etched mesoporous silicon (Δn ≤ 2) [27,28] and derivatives (Δn ≤ 0.5). [29] Among these, mesoporous silicon, which features deeply subwavelength pore diameters in the range from ≈2 to 50 nm is especially attractive owing to its high index contrast and CMOS-compatible synthesis from silicon wafers.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Digital and Gradient Refractive Index Planar Optics by Nanoimprinting Mesoporous Silicon

Hardison

Talukdar

Kravchenko

et al. 2022

Advanced Optical Materials

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We report the realization of digital and gradient index flat‐optics and planar waveguides using the ‘nanoimprinting refractive index’ (NIRI) technique applied to mesoporous silicon. This technique combines the distinct optical and mechanical metamaterial qualities of mesoporous silicon, including its widely tunable effective refractive index and ability to undergo plastic deformation with a near zero Poisson ratio. Nanoimprinting with premastered and reusable stamps containing analog or digital features enables the continuous or discontinuous patterning of refractive index with high contrast Δn ≥ 0.8 and subwavelength resolution. Using NIRI we experimentally demonstrate a wavefront shaping flat microlens array operating in the visible (405–635 nm) and mesoporous silicon and silica waveguides operating near 1310 nm. This study demonstrates the viability of patterning arbitrary refractive index distributions, n(x,y), on the surface of a chip while circumventing the challenges and limitations of top‐down lithographic techniques – thus opening a low‐cost and scalable approach for the realization of advanced planar optical technologies.

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Integrated Photonics on Glass: A Review of the Ion-Exchange Technology Achievements

Cited by 27 publications

References 89 publications

Sol-Gel Derived Silica-Titania Waveguide Films for Applications in Evanescent Wave Sensors—Comprehensive Study

Sol-Gel Derived Silica-Titania Waveguide Films for Applications in Evanescent Wave Sensors—Comprehensive Study

Coupling Light in Ion-Exchanged Waveguides by Silver Nanoparticle-Based Nanogratings: Manipulating the Refractive Index of Waveguides

Digital and Gradient Refractive Index Planar Optics by Nanoimprinting Mesoporous Silicon

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