Interdependence of Anti-Inflammatory and Antioxidant Properties of Squalene–Implication for Cardiovascular Health

Abstract

Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) have been recognized as the leading cause of mortality worldwide, accounting for 31% of global mortality. Among the risk factors of CVD, hyperlipidemia has been established as the most potent risk factor. Statins, a class of drug that reduces lower-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), are the preferred medical treatment. However, due to the development of statin-associated muscle symptoms, statins are associated with patients’ discontinuation and nonadherence. Other statin-induced side effects, such as hepatotoxicity and gastrointestinal upset, all contribute to patients choosing alternative medicines. Squalene (SQ), an unsaturated hydrocarbon naturally synthesized in plants and animals, could become the alternative treatment or supplementary agent for cardiovascular health. SQ has been shown to exert cardioprotective effect via its antioxidant activity. Oxidative stress and inflammatory responses are closely related to each other, which proposes an interdependence relation between antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. Therefore, this review explores the interdependence between the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of SQ implicated on cardiovascular health.

Beneficial effects of monounsaturated fatty acid‐rich blended oils with an appropriate polyunsaturated/saturated fatty acid ratio and a low n‐6/n‐3 fatty acid ratio on the health of rats

“…γ‐Oryzanol may have anti‐inflammatory effects by causing appropriate macrophage polarization and reducing the secretion of pro‐inflammatory factors by macrophages 53,54 . Phytosterols and squalene inhibit the production of inflammatory enzymes and pro‐inflammatory cytokines by reducing nuclear factor‐kappa B expression 55,56 . Furthermore, in the present study, BO significantly increased the serum ADP concentration of rats compared with CO when included in high‐fat diets.…”

Inflammatory factors and immunoglobulins alterations in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus treated with squalene

“…Studies have reported the anti-inflammatory effects of squalene, but the anti-inflammatory properties of squalene are still unclear. In a study conducted by Cardeno et al, [21] the effects of squalene on the 4) was significantly observed in some days and some doses (Figure 1). Type 2 cytokines such as IL-4 and IL-13 play an important role in causing some inflammations [24].…”

“…Antioxidant activity of squalene is accomplished by a transcription factor called nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), which acts as a master regulator of antioxidant responses to cellular stresses. It has been shown that this transcription factor in squalene reduces oxidative stress, offering a protective effect in cardiovascular health [4]. In addition, squalene has been connected to anti-cancer activities.…”

The effect of squalene on lipid profile and some oxidative biomarkers in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus

“…Squalene, along with intake of some vitamins and polyunsaturated fatty acids, can regulate lipid metabolism [33]. It was reported that squalene has antioxidant properties and thus can have a protective effect on the heart [34]. Due to the antioxidant effects of squalene, a decrease in oxidative indices and ROS is expected.…”