International Biological Flora: Trapa natans†

Abstract

This account presents information on all aspects of the biology of Trapa natans L. (water caltrop and water chestnut) that are relevant to understanding its ecological characteristics and behaviour. The main topics are presented within the standard framework of the International Biological Flora: distribution, habitat, communities, responses to biotic factors, responses to environment, structure and physiology, phenology, floral and seed characters, herbivores and disease, history, conservation and global heterogeneity. The water caltrop is an annual herbaceous hydrophyte rooted in the sediment of water bodies, forming flexuous underwater stems that create a buoyant, light‐capturing leaf rosette at the water surface. The submerged stem nodes additionally bear linear leaves. These are replaced by photosynthetically active, pinnately branched structures and unbranched adventitious roots early on, which complement previously established roots on the hypocotyl, altogether facilitating anchorage, nutrient and water absorption, aeration and capture of subsurface irradiance. Solitary flowers pollinated primarily through autogamy and incidentally through entomophily give rise to a fully developed edible single‐seeded drupe with two to four barbed horns. Fruits are dispersed with the help of hydrochory, epizoochory and anthropochory. Throughout its lowland, global temperate, subtropical and tropical distribution in Eurasia and Africa, the thermophilic macrophyte is found in shallow, sun‐exposed, nutrient‐rich freshwater bodies with low‐velocity flows and steady water levels. These offer slightly acidic to mildly basic conditions. The accompanying soft substrate is usually characterized by a high organic matter content. Regularly co‐occurring with other macrophytes, some of which are also of conservation concern, such as those in rare stands of the association Trapetum natantis in Europe, the water caltrop has at times been outcompeted, though it may form monodominant stands, due to several competitive features. Formerly widespread in Europe, T. natans is today recognized as a rare, strictly protected macrophyte. It has been introduced to Australia and North America; on the latter continent, its naturalization, spread and aggressive overgrowth have led to extensive control efforts. Having been used as a crop since Neolithic times, it is still exploited in Asia for means of food production, phytoremediation, ornamental purposes, medication and alternative uses.