International Exchange: A Foundation for Theory Building in International Business

The evolving role of organisational and personal networks in international market venturing

“…This study adopts the definition that internationalisation is a process of opportunity exploration and exploitation that leads to involvement in operations across borders (Oviatt & McDougall, 2005a;Welch & Luostarinen, 1988). In the international business context, an opportunity is an unfilled, or imperfectly filled, demand in a foreign market (Toyne, 1989). Thereby, exploration is the seeking process of new opportunities, followed by the decision to exploit those opportunities (Choi & Shepherd, 2004).…”

A Social Exchange Perspective on Business Ethics: An Application to Knowledge Exchange

“…The theory also has wide applicability in international business. Using the concept of exchange, Toyne (1989) has suggested that international business can be viewed as possessing three characteristics: 2…”

Marketing and Non-Market Based Value Creation: Gifts and “Guanxi”

“…We argue that both gift giving and guanxi are mechanisms for creating value in long-term exchange and that there has been a relative lack of acceptance of non-market based value creation. In essence, we are calling for a broader perspective on the nature of value and value creation, in much the way that Toyne (1989) argued that theories of international management would be more robust incorporating anthropological and sociological, as well as economics, perspectives.…”