Introduction to the macrolide antibiotics

Kirst, Herbert A.

doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-8105-0_1

Cited by 20 publications

(17 citation statements)

References 83 publications

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“…The first macrolide, erythromycin, was discovered in 1952 and since then macrolides have had an important role in treating infectious diseases (Kirst, 2002). Erythromycin has a moderate spectrum of activity which has been enhanced with the production of the newer semi‐synthetic derivatives such as azithromycin, clarithromycin, and more recently, the ketolides (Kirst, 2002). Macrolides are used to treat acute upper and lower respiratory tract infections due to a variety of Gram‐positive bacteria, Mycoplasma pneumoniae , Chlamydia pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Haemophilus influenzae , Moraxella catarrhalis , skin and soft tissue infections, sexually transmitted diseases caused by Chlamydia trachomatis , Treponema pallidum or Ureaplasma urealyticum , chronic pulmonary infections in cystic fibrosis patients, and diseases caused by Bordetella pertusis , Borrelia burgdorferi , Bartonella henselae , Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes , Rickettsia spp., Rhodococcus equi , as well as Mycobacterium avium‐intracellulare and other atypical mycobacterium.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Update on macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone resistance genes

Roberts

2008

FEMS Microbiology Letters

331

258

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This Minireview summarizes the changes in the field of bacterial resistance to macrolide, lincosamide, streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone (MLSKO) antibiotics since the nomenclature review in 1999. A total of 66 genes conferring resistance to this group of antibiotics has now been identified and includes 13 new rRNA methylase genes, four ATP-binding transporter genes coding for efflux proteins, and five new inactivating enzymes. During this same time period, 73 new genera carrying known rRNA methylase genes and 87 new genera carrying known efflux and/or inactivating genes have been recognized. The number of bacteria with mutations in the genes for 23S rRNA, L4 and L22 ribosomal proteins, resulting in reduced susceptibility to some members of the group of MLSKO antibiotics has also increased and now includes nine different Gram-positive and 10 different Gram-negative genera. New conjugative transposons carrying different MLSKO genes along with an increased number of antibiotics and/or heavy metal resistance genes have been identified. These mobile elements may play a role in the continued spread of the MLSKO resistance genes into new species, genera, and ecosystems.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Update on macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone resistance genes

Roberts

2008

FEMS Microbiology Letters

331

258

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“…Azithromycin, a semi-synthetic derivative of erythromycin, has a broader spectrum of activity against bacteria than erythromycin, and it is active against Grampositive bacteria, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare, and some Gram-negative species (Ballow & Amsden 1992, Kirst 2002. Unlike erythromycin, azithromycin may not be administered to food fish.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In captive broodstock programs for endangered stocks of salmon, a percentage of fish are held through the entire life cycle, and the risk of BKD epidemics can be high. In those programs oral or injected macrolides may be administered anytime during growth to maturity.Azithromycin, a semi-synthetic derivative of erythromycin, has a broader spectrum of activity against bacteria than erythromycin, and it is active against Grampositive bacteria, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare, and some Gram-negative species (Ballow & Amsden 1992, Kirst 2002. Unlike erythromycin, azithromycin may not be administered to food fish.…”

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confidence: 99%

Characterization of Renibacterium salmoninarum with reduced susceptibility to macrolide antibiotics by a standardized antibiotic susceptibility test

Rhodes¹,

Nguyen²,

Deinhard³

et al. 2008

Dis. Aquat. Org.

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Three cohorts of juvenile and subadult Chinook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha received multiple treatments with macrolide antibiotics for bacterial kidney disease (BKD) during rearing in a captive broodstock program. A total of 77 mortalities among the cohorts were screened for Renibacterium salmoninarum, the etiologic agent of BKD, by agar culture from kidney, and isolates from 7 fish were suitable for growth testing in the presence of macrolide antibiotics. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of erythromycin and azithromycin was determined by a modification of the standardized broth assay using defined medium. The American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) type strain 33209 exhibited a MIC of 0.008 µg ml -1 to either erythromycin or azithromycin. Isolates from 3 fish displayed MICs identical to the MICs for the ATCC type strain 33209. In contrast, isolates from 4 fish exhibited higher MICs, ranging between 0.125 and 0.250 µg ml -1 for erythromycin and between 0.016 and 0.031 µg ml -1 for azithromycin. Sequence analysis of the mutational hotspots for macrolide resistance in the 23S rDNA gene and the open reading frames of ribosomal proteins L4 and L22 found identical sequences among all isolates, indicating that the phenotype was not due to mutations associated with the drug-binding site of 23S rRNA. These results are the first report of R. salmoninarum with reduced susceptibility to macrolide antibiotics isolated from fish receiving multiple antibiotic treatments. KEY WORDS:Antimicrobial agent susceptibility testing · Macrolide antibiotic · Reduced susceptibility · Renibacterium salmoninarum · Bacterial kidney disease Resale or republication not permitted without written consent of the publisherDis Aquat Org 80: [173][174][175][176][177][178][179][180] 2008 tible to infection throughout the entire life cycle. For fish culturists, the windows of opportunity to deliver therapeutics against BKD are limited, and antibiotics are the most commonly used agents.By 1990, erythromycin was demonstrated to be potentially effective against vertical transmission of Renibacterium salmoninarum (Bullock & Leek 1986, Evelyn et al. 1986, Brown et al. 1990, and injection of female broodstock with erythromycin is currently a routine procedure in many US rearing facilities (e.g. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife 2002, US Fish andWildlife Service 2005). In the US, erythromycin may be used in food salmonids under an Investigational New Animal Drug (INAD) application, although approval is still pending (National Coordinator for Aquaculture New Animal Drug Applications 2007). In captive broodstock programs for endangered stocks of salmon, a percentage of fish are held through the entire life cycle, and the risk of BKD epidemics can be high. In those programs oral or injected macrolides may be administered anytime during growth to maturity.Azithromycin, a semi-synthetic derivative of erythromycin, has a broader spectrum of activity against bacteria than erythromycin, and it is active against Grampositive bact...

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“…Erythromycin, the first macrolide discovered, was isolated from a culture broth of Saccharopolyspora erythraea in 1952, and is still the most used macrolide today. Since the 1950s, several macrolides have been isolated from culture broths of various different bacteria as well as created semi-synthetically (Kirst, 2001). Macrolides are characterised by a fairly broad spectrum of activity against bacteria.…”

Section: History and Mechanism Of Action Of Macrolide Antibioticsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Deliberations on the impact of antibiotic contamination on dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes in aquatic environments

Berglund¹

2014

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The great success of antibiotics in treating bacterial infectious diseases has been hampered by the increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Not only does antibiotic resistance threaten to increase the difficulty in treating bacterial infectious diseases, but it could also make medical procedures such as routine surgery and organ transplantations very dangerous to perform. Traditionally, antibiotic resistance has been regarded as a strictly clinical problem and studies of the problem have mostly been restricted to a clinical milieu. Recently, non-clinical environments, and in particular aquatic environments, have been recognised as important factors in development and dissemination of antibiotic resistance. Elevated concentrations of antibiotics in an environment are likely to drive a selection pressure which favours resistant bacteria, and are also believed to promote horizontal gene transfer among the indigenous bacteria. Antibiotic resistance genes are often located on mobile genetic elements such as plasmids and integrons, which have the ability to disseminate among taxonomically unrelated species. The environmental bacteria can thus serve as both reservoirs for resistance and hot spots for the development of new antibiotic resistance determinants.There is still a lack of data pertaining to how high antibiotic concentrations are necessary to drive a selection pressure in aquatic environments. The aim of this thesis is to determine the effect of high and low concentrations of antibiotics on environmental bacterial communities from different aquatic environments. In the studies performed, antibiotics were measured using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Bacterial diversity and evenness were assessed using molecular fingerprints obtained with 16S rRNA gene-based denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, and antibiotic resistance genes and class 1 integrons were quantified using real-time PCR.Water and sediment samples were collected from different rivers and canals in Pakistan. The environments differed in anthropogenic exposure from undisturbed to heavily contaminated. A general trend could be observed of high concentrations of antibiotics correlating to elevated concentrations of antibiotic resistance genes and integrons. Extremely high concentrations of antibiotic resistance genes and integrons were found in the sediments downstream of an industrial drug formulation site, which likely correlated to the high load of antibiotics found in the water. Antibiotic and antibiotic resistance gene concentrations were also shown to increase downstream of Ravi river, which flows through Lahore, a city of more than 10 million inhabitants. Rivers not impacted by anthropogenic contamination were found to contain antibiotics and resistance gene concentrations of similar levels as in Europe and the U.S. Similar measurements were performed in the Swedish river Stångån. The concentrations of antibiotic resistance genes and class 1 VI integrons were shown to increase in the river after it had passed...

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Introduction to the macrolide antibiotics

Cited by 20 publications

References 83 publications

Update on macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone resistance genes

Update on macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin, ketolide, and oxazolidinone resistance genes

Characterization of Renibacterium salmoninarum with reduced susceptibility to macrolide antibiotics by a standardized antibiotic susceptibility test

Deliberations on the impact of antibiotic contamination on dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes in aquatic environments

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