Invasion of Personal Space as a Function of Age, Sex, and Race

Dean, Larry M.; Willis, Frank N.; Rocco, James M. La

doi:10.2466/pr0.1976.38.3.959

Cited by 9 publications

(6 citation statements)

References 12 publications

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“…Our results showed that TD children preferred larger Comfort- than Reaching-distance. This result could be easily accounted for by the fact that participants were children facing an unfamiliar adult, a situation in which they may have experienced a feeling of discomfort, thereby preferring a larger Comfort- than Reaching-distance (Dean, Willis, & LaRocco, 1976; Severy, Forsyth, & Wagner, 1979).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

When social and action spaces diverge: A study in children with typical development and autism

Candini

Giuberti

Santelli

et al. 2019

Autism

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The space around the body has been defined as action space ( peripersonal space) and a social space ( interpersonal space). Within the current debate about the characteristics of these spaces, here we investigated the functional properties and plasticity of action and social space in developmental age. To these aims, children with typical development and autism spectrum disorders were submitted to Reaching- and Comfort-distance tasks, to assess peripersonal and interpersonal space, respectively. Participants approached a person (confederate) or an object and stopped when they thought they could reach the stimulus (Reaching-distance task), or they felt comfortable with stimulus’ proximity (Comfort-distance task). Both tasks were performed before and after a cooperative tool-use training, in which participant and confederate actively cooperated to reach tokens by using either a long (Experiment 1) or a short (Experiment 2) tool. Results showed that in both groups, peripersonal space extended following long-tool-use but not short-tool-use training. Conversely, in typical development, but not in autism spectrum disorders children, interpersonal space toward confederate reduced following the cooperative tool-use training. These findings reveal that action and social spaces are functionally dissociable both in typical and atypical development, and that action but not social space regulation is intact in children with autism.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

When social and action spaces diverge: A study in children with typical development and autism

Candini

Giuberti

Santelli

et al. 2019

Autism

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“…It is the cognitive and social carriers of sex effects, and not biological sex per se, that allow the expansion of female spaces, or the shrinking of male spaces, to become a feminist issue (Powers & Guess, 1976;Tipton, Bailey, & Obenchain, 1975). Ashton, Shaw, & Worsham, 1980Baker & Shaw, 1980Bouska & Beatty, 1978Brown, 1981Burgess, 1981Dean, Willis, & LaRocco, 1976Ford, Cramer, & Owens, 1977Greenberg, Aronow, & Rauchway, ' 1977Heckel & Hiers, 1977Hendrick, Giesen, & Coy, 1974Knowles, 1980aMallenby, 1974aNicosia et al, 1979Patterson, 1977Schneider & Hansvick, 1977Smith & Knowles, 1978Strube & Werner, 1982Thalhofer, 1980Thompson, Aiello, & Epstein, 1979Worchel & Yohai, 1979(8 additional studies cited in Hayduk, 1978) Polit & LaFrance, 1977Rosegrant & McCroskey, 1975Savinar, 1975Schwarzwald et al, 1977Severy, Forsyth, & Wagner, 1979Shuter, 1976Sobel & Lillith, 1975Sundstrom & Sundstrom, 1977Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1978Ugwuegbu & Anusiem, 1982Walden & Forsyth, 198! Walker & Borden, 1976Whalen et al, 1975Willis, Carlson, & Reeves, 1979Wittig & Skolnick, 1978<...>…”

Section: Sexmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Adults as well as children are influenced by age differences. Children's intrusions into the rear spaces of adults standing in queues result in the adults' turning toward, speaking to, and smiling at 5-year-olds, whereas they move, lean away, and fidget if the invader is a 10-year-old (Fry & Willis, 1971;Dean, Willis, & LaRocco, 1976).…”

Section: Agementioning

confidence: 99%

“…The persons comprising the extreme small end of the Latin American distance preferences con- 1980aBauer, 1973Zimmerman & Brody, 1975Booraem et al, 1977Brown, 1981Thompson & Baxter, 1973 Forston & Larson, 1968Watson, 1970p. 79 Baxter, 1970Ford& Graves, 1977Jones & Aiello, 1973Tennis & Dabbs, 1976Willis, 1966Frankel & Barrett, 1971Hendricks & Bootzin, 1976Katz, Katz, & Cohen, 1976Rosegrant, 1973, cited in Burgoon & Jones, 1976Rosegrant & McCroskey, 1975Willis, 1966Zimmerman & Brody, 1975Pagan & Aiello, 1975 Jones, 1971Leibman, 1970Scherer, 1974bWillis, 1974cited in Baldassare & Feller, 1975Winogrond, 1981Dean, Willis, & LaRocco, 1976Leibman, 1970Willis, Carlson, & Reeves, 1979Gilmour & Walkey, 1981Sobel &Lillith, 1975 tacting the more homogeneous North Americans may be providing obvious and recountable instances even if this does not reflect the full range of cross-cultural contacts. Even this suggestion does not seem very attractive, however, given the comparable (or even larger) distance standard deviations in noncontact cultures (Watson, 1970, p. 79).…”

Section: Cultural and Subcultural Differencesmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Personal space: Where we now stand.

Hayduk

1983

Psychological Bulletin

388

336

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A review of the "personal space" research reveals that an overwhelming accumulation of evidence weighs against the use of projective measurement strategies, while the interrelations between the various real-life measures remain poorly documented. A "nondichotomous carrier mechanism" reconceptualization is proposed to reorient investigation of the confused pattern of sex effects. Other findings show that once data based on projective measures are discarded, it becomes clear that personal space gradually increases in size between 3–21 yrs of age. The evidence regarding cultural and subcultural differences in personal space is considerably weaker than has frequently been assumed. The present review further reveals that formerly implicit links between personal space and crowding have congealed into specific and fruitful theoretical parallels. The use of attribution, expectancy, and equilibrium theories in interpreting the results of personal space research is discussed, and the causes and consequences of personal space preferences are considered in terms of personality, situational effects, and acquaintanceship. (12 p ref)

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“…Personal space is a well-explored phenomenon that has been the focus of a variety of studies, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s. An invasion of personal space leads to a range of reactions, for instance going away, anger, discomfort (Altman, 1975, p. 88), aggression, excess motor activity (Dean et al, 1976), defensive gestures or change of posture (Sommer, 1969, p. 37), and this reaction can be different for different people. All these responses support the preserva tion of personal space and therefore help to regulate interactions with other people and to establish a preferred amount of privacy (Altman, 1975, p. 54).…”

Section: Theoretical Backgroundmentioning

confidence: 99%

Measuring the auditory bubble: How mobile music listening affects personal space

Schurig

2024

Jahrb. Musik.

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Research on mobile music listening (through headphones while on the move) revealed that people use music to create an imaginary space around themselves that cannot be breached by others. This concept recalls the zone around each person called personal space. Thus, the questions posed in this exploratory study were as follows: How does music listening through headphones influence personal space? Is there a difference between air-conduction and bone-conduction headphones? Thirty people (M_age = 34.6, SD_age = 15.4; 11 male, 19 female) took part in the experiment. They were each approached by either a female or male assistant while listening to self-chosen music and were instructed to ask them to stop at two points: firstly, when an ideal conversation distance had been reached, and secondly, when the assistant should not come any closer. The distances between assistant and participant were measured first without music and then randomly while listening through air-conduction or bone-conduction headphones. Results indicate that listening to music influences personal space: when music was listened to through headphones, the ideal conversation distance was smaller, whereas the second distance measurement was only affected by air-conduction headphones. Apart from music, no other factor was found to influence the size of personal space. The findings of the present study reveal that listening to music and even the kind of headphones used have a measurable influence on personal space. The smaller personal distance required when listening to music can be explained by the fact that the listener is distracted from unpleasant situations and can instead focus on something positive.

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Invasion of Personal Space as a Function of Age, Sex, and Race

Cited by 9 publications

References 12 publications

When social and action spaces diverge: A study in children with typical development and autism

When social and action spaces diverge: A study in children with typical development and autism

Personal space: Where we now stand.

Measuring the auditory bubble: How mobile music listening affects personal space

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