Invited review: Post-traumatic stress disorder; A new clinical entity?

Long-term effects of trauma: Post-traumatic stress among civilian internees of the japanese during world war II

“…L,ess information exists with regard to the course of PTSD. Some evidence supports a stress evaporation model, which maintains that the effects of trauma dissipate over time; other evidence supports a residual stress model, which maintains that the effects of trauma are long-lasting (Figley, 1978;Miller et al, 1992;Ramsay, 1990). Delayed onset and fluctuating patterns of symptoms also have been noted (Nichols & Czirr, 1986).…”

“…Others have suggested that the development of PTSD may be characterized by phases, that symptoms may wax and wane, and that its resurgence may be influenced by crises or reminders of the traumatic event (Denny, Robinowitz, & Penk, 1987;Long et al, 1989;Solomon et al, 1991; Zeiss & Dickman, 1989). In particular, the exacerbation and reactivation of PTSD may be related to aging (Lipton & Schaffer, 1986Nichols & Czirr, 1986;Query, Megran, & McDonald, 1986; Ramsay, 1990). Life stresses inherent in the aging process (e.g., bereavement, physical disability, and the awareness of death) may be sources of trauma in their own right or may serve as reminders of the original traumatic event.…”

Psychiatric Disorders Among Survivors of the Oklahoma City Bombing

“…Preexisting psychopathology has also been identified as a robust predictor of PTSD by previous studies of this team 4,20-24 and others. 13,14,[30][31][32] The 43% rate of lifetime predisaster psychiatric illness in the Oklahoma sample does not exceed the expected general population lifetime rates of 48% in a large population assessed with structured interviews 33 and is not significantly higher than rates of preexisting illness in other disaster sites studied by this disaster research team. 20,23,24,34 Observations on PTSD This study provided important observations on the character and early course of PTSD following a particularly severe disaster.…”

The Psychological and Psychiatric Morbidity Questionnaire (PPMQ): a measure to assess and predict psychological and psychiatric morbidity in individuals following burn trauma

“…In chronic illness, for example renal, cardiovascular disease and cancer the process may follow a similar course; however, the onset may be more insidious. There is significant evidence to indicate that individuals suffering from trauma caused by burns, road traffic accidents and major disasters experience moderate to severe psychological disturbances (Ramsay, 1990). The acute psychological reactions of severely burned patients are well documented (Wallace et al, 1988;Watkins et al, 1988).…”