Is Entrepreneurship the Solution for Female Empowerment in South Africa

Abstract

Gender inequality remains one of the most pressing socio-economic challenge in South Africa despite the presence of policy initiatives that target women for empowerment. The lack of consensus in the literature of a reliable and consistent measurement instrument of gender equality also makes it difficult to quantify and analyze female empowerment issues. The objective of the study was to estimate a measure for female empowerment, Gender Status Index, for South Africa and then use the index to analyze the relationship between entrepreneurship, economic growth and female empowerment. Using annual data from 1991 to 2017, an ARDL model of female empowerment (GSI), female entrepreneurship (Total female Self-Employment) and economic growth (Real GDP growth) was estimated. The study found that entrepreneurship has a positive impact on economic empowerment but no significant relationship on political and social empowerment. The study recommends more entrepreneurship institutions for female economic empowerment and ongoing policies initiatives that are more direct toward supporting female empowerment.

Gender question: Econometric answer

“…Meanwhile, human resources attracted for the production of goods and services continue to be growing. For example, the share of women in the active working population of the Middle East and Africa has increased significantly in the recent decades (Mukorera, 2020;Cline, 2019;Al-Dajani, 2019;Li et al). Previously, female labor used to be either informal, or banned in these regions.…”

Challenges to and Enablers of Women's Advancement in Academic Careers at a Selected South African University

“…According to Walker (2020), most women lack sufficient motivation to improve their careers, not just in academia but also in other industries, particularly when compared to men. A lack of empowerment of women aspiring to become academicians is also highlighted by Mukorera (2020) and Sá et al (2020), who argue that a South African background necessitates women empowerment initiatives that assist career progression. While there are initiatives in place to address the challenges that women face, more proactive steps are required to eradicate the significant degree of gender disparity in South African universities (Mukorera, 2020;Sadiq et al, 2019).…”

Informal entrepreneurship and women's empowerment – the case of street vendors in urban Colombia

“…Saripalli et al (2018) studied three organizations in India that help female subsistence entrepreneurs to: “extending services throughout the value chain (…), ploughing back regular incomes and bonuses through mechanisms acceptable to all members; and empowering subsistence producers to gain market power and ability to choose” (p. 71). Authors found that through encouraging and strengthening women's skills, supporting them with microcredits and regular incomes and providing them market access, these organizations have enabled women's capacity to make decisions and take charge of their lives (Banihani, 2020; Ciruela-Lorenzo et al , 2020; Mukorera, 2020; Senapati and Ojha, 2019).…”

“…Furthermore, many scholars such as Pollack (2000) and Batliwala (2010) claim that current approach to empowerment through entrepreneurship focuses on personal power and achievement, leaving behind collective struggles against oppression. Factors as constraints in developing human capital, lack of access to labor markets, obstacles to obtain credits, familial responsibilities, sociocultural restrictions and gender norms have a predominant role in the difficulties women face to be successful as entrepreneurs and consequently to achieve higher empowerment levels (Alkhaled and Berglund, 2018; Eib and Siegert, 2019; Johnson, 2020; Mukorera, 2020). For instance, Shingla and Singh (2015) find that entrepreneurship increases mobility and decision-making power of Indian women, yet it does not show positive effects on capacity building.…”