Is the testing effect ready to be put to work? Evidence from the laboratory to the classroom.

Abstract

The testing effect refers to the benefits to retention that result from structuring learning activities in the form of a test. As educators consider implementing test-enhanced learning paradigms in real classroom environments, we think it is critical to consider how an array of factors affecting test-enhanced learning in laboratory studies bear on test-enhanced learning in real-world classroom environments. This review discusses the degree to which test feedback, test format (of formative tests), number of tests, level of the test questions, timing of tests (relative to initial learning), and retention duration have import for testing effects in ecologically valid contexts (e.g., classroom studies). Attention is also devoted to characteristics of much laboratory testing-effect research that may limit translation to classroom environments, such as the complexity of the material being learned, the value of the testing effect relative to other generative learning activities in classrooms, an educational orientation that favors criterial tests focused on transfer of learning, and online instructional modalities. We consider how student-centric variables present in the classroom (e.g., cognitive abilities, motivation) may have bearing on the effects of testing-effect techniques implemented in the classroom. We conclude that the testing effect is a robust phenomenon that benefits a wide variety of learners in a broad array of learning domains. Still, studies are needed to compare the benefit of testing to other learning strategies, to further characterize how individual differences relate to testing benefits, and to examine whether testing benefits learners at advanced levels.

Student Perceptions on the Use of Flip in Higher Education: Learning Strategies and Classroom Community

“…For example, future research could examine the efficacy of using Flip compared to strategies students frequently report using to study (e.g., rereading the textbook) or explore the impact of using different types of assessments (e.g., creating Flip videos versus writing short essay papers). More generally, research has emphasized the importance of conducting research in authentic classroom environments (Dunlosky et al, 2018;Trumbo et al, 2021), with some research calling for additional research in Introduction to Psychology courses in particular (Gurung & Hackathorn, 2018). Indeed, examination of pedagogical practices and their impact on the classroom experience is important for informing our understanding of teaching and learning in real-world, educational settings.…”

Do not forget the keyword method: Learning educational content with arbitrary associations.

“…Rowland, 2014). However, unlike previous studies with practice test performance below 50% and no testing effect (e.g., McDaniel & Masson, 1985), we provided feedback for each item during practice (in line with many educational applications of the testing effect; see Trumbo et al, 2021). Miyatsu and McDaniel (2019) found that for practice test performances below 50%, even with feedback, there was no advantage of retrieval practice relative to restudy (with two practice tests), which possibly suggests that low initial retrieval levels might limit the testing effect.…”

“…Most research emphasizing the benefits of retrieval practice has compared it to a restudy condition or no activity, rather than against other effective study methods (see Trumbo et al, 2021). For our learning materials, retrieval practice showed benefits relative to restudy, but as just noted those benefits were somewhat less robust than an effective mnemonic method (as gauged by effect size).…”

“…Regarding retrieval practice, there is a plethora of literature on the benefits of this strategy for learning and retention (for reviews see Adesope et al, 2017; Agarwal et al, 2021; Pan & Rickard, 2018; Rowland, 2014; Trumbo et al, 2021). Briefly, retrieval practice (i.e., practice testing) helps the learner to more accurately gauge what they know and do not know, and it produces improved long-term retention of the material (e.g., Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).…”

Closed-Loop tACS Delivered during Slow-Wave Sleep Reduces Retroactive Interference on a Paired-Associates Learning Task

“…There are a variety of ways to augment consolidation in humans, including pharmacologically [ 21 ], by utilizing the testing effect [ 22 ], distributed learning [ 23 ], dreaming [ 24 ], and manipulation of physiological states [ 25 ], among others. Recently, transcranial current stimulation (tCS), including transcranial direct and alternating current stimulation (tDCS, tACS, respectively), has become a popular method to communicate with the brain in its own language, electricity [ 26 ], as well as to augment cognition [ 27 ].…”