Joining the Republic of Indians: Free Filipinos and Freed Chinos

The genetic legacy of the Manila galleon trade in Mexico

“…We found the maximum-likelihood parameters for this single pulse model to be consistent with an Asian admixture event 13 generations ago, or around 1620 CE using a sex-averaged estimate of 30 years per generation ( figure 4 ). This date coincides with the Spanish colonial period and its Manila Galleon slave trade from the Philippines to Mexico, which had a period of major activity from 1565 to 1679 CE [ 9 ]. This slave trade route originated in the need for additional labour that arose in colonial Mexico following the demographic collapse of the native populations, and ended when the enslaved Asian source populations, mostly residing in Spanish colonial Asia, were declared indigenous vassals of the crown and thus free.…”

“…The census estimate from 1646 CE reports a population of 1 712 615 in New Spain, with 74.6% Native Americans, 22.6% admixed and the remainder African (2%) and European (0.8%) minorities [ 8 ]. Asians arrived first via the Manila Galleons, ships that conducted the trans-Pacific trade with the Philippines repeatedly between 1565 CE and 1815 CE [ 9 ]. The largest period of such migration occurred in the seventeenth century, compensating for the diminished labour force following the indigenous demographic collapse [ 9 ].…”

“…Asians arrived first via the Manila Galleons, ships that conducted the trans-Pacific trade with the Philippines repeatedly between 1565 CE and 1815 CE [ 9 ]. The largest period of such migration occurred in the seventeenth century, compensating for the diminished labour force following the indigenous demographic collapse [ 9 ]. Some Asian individuals travelled freely to Mexico, but many others were slaves from Manila, where a third of the population was enslaved indigenous Southeast Asian groups [ 9 ].…”

“…The largest period of such migration occurred in the seventeenth century, compensating for the diminished labour force following the indigenous demographic collapse [ 9 ]. Some Asian individuals travelled freely to Mexico, but many others were slaves from Manila, where a third of the population was enslaved indigenous Southeast Asian groups [ 9 ]. The main New World disembarkation point for these enslaved individuals was the southern Mexican Pacific coastal port of Acapulco in the state of Guerrero.…”

“…This Asian ancestral contribution to the Mexican population has been overlooked by contemporary genetic studies, which have focused on a tripartite admixture model [ 10 , 11 ]. Asian immigrants in Mexico were often referred to as ‘Indios’ just as Native Americans, and this identity was often embraced by these slaves in order to demand liberation at legal courts [ 9 ]. Historical records estimate a total of 40 000–120 000 immigrants from Manila in colonial Mexico [ 12 ] and the Spanish recorded that they were particularly numerous in Acapulco, with nearly every Spanish home having at least three, and up to 18, Asian slaves [ 13 ].…”