Language maintenance and shift under pressure: Three generations of the Turkish immigrant community in the Netherlands

Abstract

Drawing on questionnaire and interview data, this study explores the process of language maintenance and shift across three generations of Turkish immigrants in the Netherlands. It compares three generations of Turkish-Dutch bilinguals by examining age and place of language learning, self-rated language proficiency, and language choices in six domains (home, school, work, friends, media and leisure time activities, and cognitive activities). Furthermore, it investigates bilinguals’ experiences, motivations for learning languages and attitudes towards bilingualism. Findings suggest that following the typical pattern of language shift described by Mario Saltarelli and Susan Gonzo in 1977, language history, self-rated language proficiency and current language practices of third-generation children differ from those of first- and second-generation bilinguals. Consequently, possible language shift among third-generation bilinguals causes socioemotional pressure about maintaining the Turkish language, triggering intergenerational tensions in Turkish immigrant families. At the same time, the perceived need to shift to Dutch for social and economic reasons causes immigrant children to experience tensions and ambiguities in the linguistic connections between the family and other social domains (e. g. school, friendship). The findings evidence that the Turkish immigrant community in the Netherlands may no longer be as linguistically homogeneous as once observed. The dissolution of homogeneity can be a sign of social change in which maintaining the Turkish language has become a challenge, whereas speaking Dutch is a necessity of life in the Netherlands.

Heritage language anxiety and majority language anxiety among Turkish immigrants in the Netherlands

“…Netherlands has shown evidence of an ongoing language shift, particularly in the third generation (Sevinç, 2016). This language shift causes socioemotional pressure on individuals to maintain the Turkish language, triggering intergenerational tensions in Turkish immigrant families.…”

“…Based on differences among three generations regarding their language history, self-rated language proficiency and current language practices, Sevinç (2014Sevinç ( , 2016 Hypothesis: Based on participants' language background (see Table 2), we predict that levels of HLA and MLA will correlate negatively with participants' self-reported proficiency and daily language use, that is, participants with high language anxiety have lower language proficiency in the language that they are anxious about-HL or ML-and use that language less frequently. Since almost all participants from all generations acquired Turkish from birth, higher levels of HLA will be linked with earlier AoA of ML.…”

“…(Labov, 2006) when speaking the HL, more specifically, with the ongoing language shift of this community and the tension and intergenerational conflict it creates within the family (Sevinç, 2016). The feeling of anxiety when speaking Turkish around people from the mainstream (Dutch) community, on the other hand, may arise from pressures of contact (Mackey, 1962), the feeling of language or social inequality (Hudson, 1996), language pride and language panic (Martínez, 2006) rather than lack of self-perceived Turkish proficiency.…”

Peralihan Bahasa Cham dalam Masyarakat Cham di Malaysia: Analisis Sosiolinguistik (Language Shift among the Malaysian Cham Community: A Sociolinguistic Analysis)

“…Pengkelasan generasi ditentukan berdasarkan tempat kelahiran dan tahun mula menetap. Kebanyakan sarjana (Finocchiaro, 2004;Meybodi, 2014;Sevinç, 2016) bersetuju bahawa generasi pertama ialah mereka yang lahir di negara asal dan generasi kedua ialah mereka yang lahir di negara baru dan kedua-dua ibu bapa atau satu daripadanya lahir di negara asal. Walau bagaimanapun, generasi kedua juga mempunyai penetapan lain.…”

“An unrealistic expectation”: Māori youth on indigenous language purism

“…Indeed, learning and speaking a heritage language is known to induce a range of emotional responses (MacIntyre and Gregersen 2012). Sevinç's (2016) research with Turkish heritage language learners in the Netherlands explains that young, incipient bilinguals commonly experience socioemotional pressures when speaking Turkish within their ethnic community. The notion is that high-level proficiency in a heritage language can host connotations of cultural and ethnic authenticity, but for less than highly-proficient language users the result may be linguistic anxiety; "the fear or apprehension experienced when a language learner or user is expected to perform" (Sevinç and Dewaele 2016: 2).…”