Lead Exposure in Female Workers Who are Pregnant or of Childbearing Age

Abstract

In adults, high-level lead exposure often occurs in the lead-related industries. Acute lead poisoning has become rare, but chronic exposure to low-level lead remains a public health issue. With recent advances in our understanding of lead toxicity at low-levels, researchers have shifted their focus to studying lead at concentrations below those currently recommended as 'acceptable' in worker protection. As gender plays an important role in the storage, biokinetics, and toxicity of lead, it seems inappropriate to extrapolate findings of lead exposure in men to women. Women's bones release lead more slowly to the bloodstream, so blood levels remain increased for a long time after cessation of high exposure, reflecting the endogenous source of the lead. Particularly in pregnant women, bone lead release could influence health in pregnancy and be extremely harmful to the rapidly growing and developing fetus. Accordingly, female workers of childbearing age should avoid excessive lead exposure. However, because studies of pregnant workers encounter many difficulties and inconveniences, sufficient research has not been conducted in this area. As an alternative, a group of non-occupationally exposed women, matched as well as possible for anthropometric and reproductive variables and with almost the same levels of blood lead, could be recruited for survey.

Tobacco Smoke Exposure During Pregnancy Increases Maternal Blood Lead Levels Affecting Neonate Birth Weight

“…There is an increasing number of evidence that prenatal exposure to low doses of lead can be a risk factor for many health complications for both mother and child [13–16, 20, 22, 56]. Information on the risk of intrauterine exposure to low doses of lead resulting from smoking during pregnancy may be useful in the practice of gynecology and obstetrics.…”

Effects of Lead on Reproductive Health

“…Some authors consider that the main effect of lead on the male reproductive system is the alteration of the reproductive hormonal axis and the hormonal control of spermatogenesis, instead of the direct effect on the seminiferous tubules of the testes [23,34]. Moreover, there is evidence that the blood-testis barrier acts as a protection for the testis cells against the harmful effects of lead [35,36].…”

Lead acetate reduces the ability of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells to support hematopoiesis in vitro

“…The effect of lead on health depends not only on its total dose and the length of exposure but also on the physical and chemical state of the element and the physiological status and age of the individual (6,7). The most vulnerable groups at risk of harm from lead exposure are fetuses and children of preschool age (6,8). A previous report demonstrated that iron deficiency was associated with higher blood lead levels in children (9).…”