Lifestyle and dietary factors determine age at natural menopause

Abstract

A literature search was done using PubMed. The age at natural menopause (ANM) depends on various factors like genetic, environmental, socioeconomic, reproductive, dietary, and lifestyle of which some like nulliparity, vegetarian diet, smoking, high fat intake, cholesterol, and caffeine accelerates; while others like parity, prior use of oral contraceptive pills, and Japanese ethnicity delays the ANM. ANM is an important risk factor for long-term morbidity and mortality; and hence, the need to identify the modifiable risk factors like diet and lifestyle changes. Delayed menopause is associated with increased risk of endometrial and breast cancer, while early ANM enhances the risk for cardiovascular diseases and osteoporosis. The correlation between diet and ANM has not been extensively studied; however, whatever studies have been done till now point towards role of high intake of total calories, fruits, and proteins in delaying the ANM, while high polyunsaturated fat intake accelerates it. The role of dietary soy, total fat, saturated fat, red meat, and dietary fiber in determining the ANM has been controversial and needs further studies to substantiate it. The lifestyle factors like current smoking and vigorous exercise have been significantly associated with early menopause, while moderate alcohol consumption delays the ANM. Large prospective studies are needed to study the association of ANM and other modifiable factors like passive smoking fish consumption, soy, and various types of tea. The knowledge of modifiable determinants of ANM can help in setting up menopausal clinics and initiating health programs specially in developing countries.

A review of lifestyle, smoking and other modifiable risk factors for osteoporotic fractures

“…49 The effects of alcohol on sex steroids are complex and dose-dependent. Although chronic, heavy consumption of alcohol can decrease free testosterone and estradiol levels, light or moderate alcohol intake can be associated with a later menopause 50 and with higher serumfree testosterone after menopause. 51 Hypercortisolism and a lowering of serum leptin can also be a consequence of chronic large intake.…”

Body weight, BMI, and stature have a protective effect on bone mineral density in women with postmenopausal vertebral osteoporosis, whereas greater age at menarche and years after menopause have a negative effect

“…Menarche occurring after the age of 14 is associated with an increased incidence of osteoporosis [9]. The age at menopause onset is a risk factor for long-term morbidity and mortality, late menopause being a risk factor for endometrial and breast cancer, and early menopause being a risk factor for osteoporosis and cardiovascular diseases; a risk that occurs because of estrogen deficiency [10]. In Chinese women with postmenopausal osteoporosis, the onset of menopause before 46 years old is associated with an increased risk of osteoporosis [11].…”

Role of Diet in Pre-Menstrual and Post-Menstrual Women

“…It is thus, observed from the present study that majority of the premenopausal and post-menopausal females were habitual of taking fruits occasionally. It was reported that high consumption of fruits delay the onset of menopause in females [3] . Figure 10 shows that the majority (74.00 per cent) of the females was habitual of taking sweet preparations such as sweets, cakes, pastries etc.…”

“…The correlation between diet and menopause has not been extensively studied; however, whatever studies have been done till now point towards role of high intake of total calories, fruits, and proteins in delaying the menopausal, while high polyunsaturated fat intake accelerates it. The role of dietary soy, total fat, saturated fat, red meat, and dietary fiber in determining the menopausal symptoms has been controversial and needs further studies to substantiate it [3] .…”