Linking the oceans to public health: current efforts and future directions

Abstract

We review the major linkages between the oceans and public health, focusing on exposures and potential health effects due to anthropogenic and natural factors including: harmful algal blooms, microbes, and chemical pollutants in the oceans; consumption of seafood; and flooding events. We summarize briefly the current state of knowledge about public health effects and their economic consequences; and we discuss priorities for future research.We find that:• There are numerous connections between the oceans, human activities, and human health that result in both positive and negative exposures and health effects (risks and benefits); and the study of these connections comprises a new interdisciplinary area, "oceans and human health."• The state of present knowledge about the linkages between oceans and public health varies. Some risks, such as the acute health effects caused by toxins associated with shellfish poisoning and red tide, are relatively well understood. Other risks, such as those posed by chronic exposure to many anthropogenic chemicals, pathogens, and naturally occurring toxins in coastal waters, are less well quantified. Even where there is a good understanding of the mechanism for health effects, good epidemiological data are often lacking. Solid data on economic and social consequences of these linkages are also lacking in most cases. • The design of management measures to address these risks must take into account the complexities of human response to warnings and other guidance, and the economic tradeoffs among different risks and benefits. Future research in oceans and human health to address public health risks associated with marine pathogens and toxins, and with marine dimensions of global change, should include epidemiological, behavioral, and economic components to ensure that resulting management measures incorporate effective economic and risk/benefit tradeoffs.

Test of Direct and Indirect Effects of Agrochemicals on the Survival of Fecal Indicator Bacteria

“…Consequently, regulatory agencies have relied on the density of indicator organisms (fecal indicator bacteria [FIB]) for over a century to detect fecal contamination and thus an increased likelihood of the presence of human pathogens (65). Many epidemiological studies in recreational waters have supported the association between elevated FIB densities and the risk of contracting gastroenteritis (14,28,61).…”

Bioengineered protein phosphatase 2A

“…In freshwater, the most important HABs are caused by certain species of cyanobacteria from the genera Anabaena, Microcystis, and Apyanizomenon. 10 The toxins, small non-peptides, are some of the most powerful natural substances known. 11 In the marine and freshwater systems, humans and animals can get exposed to HA toxins by eating contaminated fish or shellfish, drinking contaminated water, inhaling contaminated aerosol, or by contacting contaminated water.…”

Socioeconomic consequences of ciguatera poisoning in Rarotonga, southern Cook Islands

“…In addition, Rarotonga has the highest incidence of ciguatera poisoning on record, where up to 1058 cases per 10,000 population per year have been reported (Rongo and van Woesik, 2011). Such information will help determine the extent of economic loss and determine what actions could be taken to mitigate the problem (Lewis, 1992;Hoagland and Scatasta, 2006;Kite-Powell et al, 2008).…”