Living with predators: a focus on the issues of human - crocodile conflict within the lower Zambezi valley

Abstract

Context. Human-wildlife conflict is a global problem and increasing worldwide as people and wildlife compete for limited resources. Conflict between people and crocodiles, especially in Africa, is recognised as a serious problem. The people of the Chiawa Game Management Area are heavily dependent on the Zambezi River for several resources from potable water and irrigating fields to a source of food (subsistence and small-scale commercial fishing).Aims. To assess the spatial and temporal scale of human-crocodile conflict (HCC) and identify associated factors, with a view to recommending mitigation measures.Methods. A questionnaire survey and Zambia Wildlife Authority data were utilised to estimate the scale of HCC. Key results. Between 2000 and 2009, there were 98 crocodile attacks on people, 62.2% were fatal. Most of the attacks occurred while canoe fishing (57.1%) and collecting water (29.6%). Crocodiles were disliked and seen as a 'problem' by the majority of the populace. Even though crocodiles are a charismatic mega-fauna species, being employed within the tourism industry had only a minor positive effect on people's attitudes. The area is an important location for crocodile egg and adult harvesting, although the local population gains no financial benefit. An increase in the number of boreholes in the villages was suggested by the local people as the primary mitigation measure, as well as the removal of crocodiles by various means.Conclusions. Although people displayed an understanding of the risks of crocodile attack, very few actually employed mitigation techniques or utilised protective barriers when at the river. Increased water-access points (and their maintenance) in the villages would reduce people's dependency on the river. The negative attitude towards crocodiles is an issue that has to be addressed to allow successful implementation of long-term conservation strategies.Implications. Understanding local people's attitudes towards wildlife is an important aspect within any conservation management plan.

An interdisciplinary review of current and future approaches to improving human–predator relations

“…Attempts to understand the behavior of damage-causing predators determine the most effective methods for reducing attacks (such as guarding livestock or providing safe water-collection points to avoid crocodile attacks), and educate local communities about employing methods to reduce their vulnerability have had some success (e.g., Balme et al 2009;Marker & Boast 2015). However, such interventions have also foundered in many places for a range of reasons, including failure to involve local people, high opportunity costs of effective livestock protection methods, and resistance to perceived infringements on freedom of behavior (Barua et al 2013), or as a result of epistemological disagreements over what causes predator attacks (Wallace et al 2011;Pooley 2016).…”

“…3, 2017 (Panthera pardus), and pumas (Puma concolor), for example, have learned to live alongside humans with few problematic encounters. On the other hand, certain places have long been notorious for so-called man-eating predators, for example Nile crocodiles along stretches of the lower Zambezi or the Chobe in Namibia (Livingstone 1858;Stevenson-Hamilton 1917;Aust et al 2009;Wallace et al 2011) and lions in the Rufiji River basin of southern Tanzania (Packer et al 2005).…”

Featured article: Management of human-crocodile conflict in the Northern Territory, Australia: Review of crocodile attacks and removal of problem crocodiles

“…Depleted populations of large carnivores represent a particularly difficult conservation challenge, because success in increasing wild populations can come with the social, political, and economic cost of increased conflict with people (Treves and Karanth , Treves et al , Dickman ). The rebuilding of wild crocodilian populations has often resulted in increased human‐crocodile conflict (HCC; Steubing , Conover and Dubow , Aust et al , Gopi and Pandav , Wallace et al , Webb ), and with larger and more aggressive crocodilians, conflict involves people being severely injured or killed (Mekisic and Wardill , Scott and Scott , Caldicott et al , Gruen , Wamisho et al ). Saltwater crocodiles ( Crocodylus porosus ) are of particular concern, because 1) they are the largest of extant crocodilians and can exceed 6 m in length and 1,000 kg in weight (Britton et al ), 2) they feed on large prey items including people and domestic stock (e.g., cattle, horses, and water buffalo), 3) they are widely distributed in the Indo‐Pacific region (Webb and Manolis , Webb et al ), and 4) they occupy a variety of water bodies, including marine and freshwater wetlands critical to the livelihoods of many people.…”

Characteristics of American alligator bites on people in Florida

“…Changes in water availability can increase movements and dispersal of crocodylians, particularly for species such as Nile crocodiles and saltwater crocodiles in climates with distinct seasonal rainfall patterns. This can lead to movements from remote areas into areas with human water activities (Wallace et al , Fukuda et al ). Drought conditions in parts of Florida leading up to the 3 fatal attacks in May 2006 were suggested as contributing to an increased risk of alligator attacks (Aguayo ).…”

“…Although Nile crocodiles ( Crocodylus niloticus ) and saltwater crocodiles ( C. porosus ) are recognized as notorious man‐eaters (Pooley et al , Caldicott et al , Wallace et al ), it is only since the early 1970s that American alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis ) have been considered a significant threat to people (Hines and Keenlyne , ; Pooley et al ). Early naturalists believed alligators to be relatively harmless to people unless provoked, or unless they or their young were threatened (Audubon , Kellogg , McIlhenny ).…”