Low birth weight and maternal incarceration in pregnancy: A longitudinal linked data study of Western Australian infants

Abstract

RationaleImproved birth weight outcomes have been reported for infants of mothers imprisoned during pregnancy relative to similarly disadvantaged mothers, however, findings are equivocal and evidence is lacking from jurisdictions outside the United States.ObjectiveTo investigate whether maternal imprisonment during pregnancy is a determinant of low birth weight (<2500 g) for Indigenous and non-Indigenous infants in Western Australia.MethodsA longitudinal sample of 41,910 singleton infants born in Western Australia (October 1985-December 2013), was identified with linked administrative data and examined by five mutually exclusive categories of maternal corrections history; (i) imprisonment in pregnancy, (ii) imprisonment before pregnancy, (iii) first imprisonment after birth, (iv) community-based corrections record without imprisonment at any time, and (v) no corrections record at any time. Univariate and multivariate Poisson regression was performed to determine key risk factors for low birth weight. Prevalence of risk factors were calculated by maternal corrections history.ResultsAfter adjusting for other significant pregnancy risks, maternal imprisonment before (Indigenous RR 2.02, 95%CI 1.84–2.22, p<.001; non-Indigenous RR 2.48, 95%CI 1.98–3.12, p<.001) or during (Indigenous RR 1.96, 95%CI 1.68–2.29, p<.001; non-Indigenous RR 2.12, 95%CI 1.48–3.03, p<.001) pregnancy remained strong determinants of low birth weight, and carried greater risk than imprisonment after birth (Indigenous RR 1.58, 95%CI 1.44–1.74, p<.001; non-Indigenous RR 1.75, 95%CI 1.51–2.04, p<.001) or community-based corrections orders (Indigenous RR 1.32, 95%CI 1.21–1.43, p<.001; non-Indigenous RR 1.40, 95%CI 1.05–1.88, p<.001), relative to no corrections record. Pregnancy risk factors more prevalent amongst infants whose mothers were imprisoned before or during pregnancy included substance-use related service contacts, hospitalisation for injury, mental health service contacts, and having a sibling in contact with the child protection system.ConclusionWestern Australian infants with mothers imprisoned before or during pregnancy experience elevated risk of low birth weight and exposure to maternal substance use, injury and mental distress in pregnancy.

Parental incarceration and child physical health outcomes from infancy to adulthood: A critical review and multilevel model of potential pathways

“…First, one study used linked medical records, and found babies born to women incarcerated during pregnancy were at an increased likelihood to be LBW, pre‐term, and re‐admitted to the hospital after birth compared to community controls (Walker et al, 2014). Dowell et al (2019) found that maternal imprisonment before or during pregnancy remained associated with infant LBW even after adjusting for significant pregnancy risks.…”

Navigating pregnancy and early motherhood in prison: a thematic analysis of mothers’ experiences

“…Consistent with global figures, the number of women in prison in Australia has increased by 62% (3,292) compared to 2,030 in 2011, while Indigenous women make up 30% of the female prison population (Australian Bureau of Statistics [ABS], 2021 ). Though research on impact of maternal incarceration and mothering in prison is robust (e.g., Casey-Acevedo et al, 2004 ; Dowell et al, 2019 ; Goshin et al, 2014 ; Nuytiens & Jehaes, 2022 ), imprisoned mothers’ voices are rarely considered in such research. Mothers’ perspectives about the effectiveness of prison-based programs, including parenting programs, prison nursery programs, or health programs have been investigated (Bard et al, 2016 ; Kennedy et al, 2020 ;; Walker et al, 2014 ).…”

“…Newborn babies and infants who were separated from their mothers experienced a disruption in their attachment and had elevated internalising and externalising problems, compared to those who were not separated (Fritz & Whiteacre, 2016 ; Poehlmann‐Tynan & Turney, 2021; Poehlmann 2005 ). Analyses of a linked administrative dataset from Australia revealed that children exposed to maternal imprisonment had higher infant mortality rates, increased risk of developmental vulnerabilities, and were twice as likely to encounter child protection services by the age of two, compared to children of mothers with no involvement in the correctional system (Dowell et al, 2018 , 2019 ).…”

“…Despite evidence supporting the differential impacts of maternal incarceration depending on the child’s age and stage of development (Powell et al, 2017 ), most studies have included mothers of dependent children but none of them have explored the unique experiences associated with mothering young children while in prison. Undoubtedly, for most mothers, separation from their young children is the hardest aspect of imprisonment (Powell et al, 2017 ; Walker et al, 2021 ), yet much scholarly work has explored the impacts of maternal incarceration on children, rather than the impacts of separation upon mothers themselves (Aiello & McCorkel, 2018 ; Dowell et al, 2019 ; Murray & Farrington, 2008 ) or the difficulty in making choices around whether to have a child placed with them in prison. There is mixed evidence around means and frequency of contact that mothers prefer for communicating with their children (Haverkate & Wright, 2020 ; Flynn et al, 2021 ; Benning & Lahm, 2016 ; Casey-Acevedo et al, 2004 ).…”

Influência da idade gestacional no termo sobre o peso: estudo de coorte

“…Com relação ao peso ao nascer, os resultados obtidos relativos à idade materna estão de acordo com a literatura científica, pois estudos com essa temática relacionam o aumento do peso das crianças ao aumento da idade materna, com relação inversa apenas nos extremos de idade. (19)(20)(21) Sobre o número de consultas pré-natais, pode estar relacionado à maior duração da gestação, visto que quanto mais prolongada, mais consultas são agendadas, sendo que a partir de 36 semanas de gestação estão indicados, pelo menos, retornos semanais. (22) Sobre o peso aos seis e doze meses, a associação positiva com a estatura ao nascer também foi encontrada em dois estudos realizados no estado de Minas Gerais, em que as crianças que apresentavam maior comprimento ao nascer apresentaram maior velocidade de ganho de peso nos primeiros seis (23) ou doze meses de vida.…”