<p>Antimicrobial Resistance: Implications and Costs</p>

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has developed as one of the major urgent threats to public health causing serious issues to successful prevention and treatment of persistent diseases. In spite of different actions taken in recent decades to tackle this issue, the trends of global AMR demonstrate no signs of slowing down. Misusing and overusing different antibacterial agents in the health care setting as well as in the agricultural industry are considered the major reasons behind the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. In addition, the spontaneous evolution, mutation of bacteria, and passing the resistant genes through horizontal gene transfer are significant contributors to antimicrobial resistance. Many studies have demonstrated the disastrous financial consequences of AMR including extremely high healthcare costs due to an increase in hospital admissions and drug usage. The literature review, which included articles published after the year 2012, was performed using Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar with the utilization of keyword searches. Results indicated that the multifactorial threat of antimicrobial resistance has resulted in different complex issues affecting countries across the globe. These impacts found in the sources are categorized into three different levels: patient, healthcare, and economic. Although gaps in knowledge about AMR and areas for improvement are obvious, there is not any clearly understood progress to put an end to the persistent trends of antimicrobial resistance.

The Effect of Antibiotic Resistance on Therapeutic Outcomes of Urinary Tract Infections in Hospitalized Patients with UTI

“…UTI, afflicting many people every year, is an infectious disease caused by bacteria that have different antibiotic resistance patterns [7] . Antibiotic resistance in turn leads to higher treatment costs, longer hospitalization, and higher mortality [6] . Given that few studies have been conducted to assess treatment outcomes of antibiotic resistance in pathogens in our region; thus, the present study aimed to investigate the clinical effects and outcomes of antibiotic resistance in urinary pathogens in patients with UTI [6] .…”

“…Antibiotic resistance in turn leads to higher treatment costs, longer hospitalization, and higher mortality [6] . Given that few studies have been conducted to assess treatment outcomes of antibiotic resistance in pathogens in our region; thus, the present study aimed to investigate the clinical effects and outcomes of antibiotic resistance in urinary pathogens in patients with UTI [6] . This study examined 140 patients diagnosed with urinary tract infection and positive urine culture, admitted to Razi hospital in Rasht, Iran during 2017-2018.…”

“…Therefore, owing to the emergence and prevalence of antibiotic resistance, treatment of UTIs, especially complicated UTI, have become increasingly difficult and challenging [5] . Previous studies have considered factors associated with a higher risk of resistance to commonly used antibiotics, such as age, sex, history of hospitalization, history of antibiotic use for the treatment or prophylaxis of UTIs, history of previous UTI, complicated-UTIs compared to uncomplicated-UTIs, community acquired-UTIs compared to hospital acquired-UTIs, history of self-medication, chronic underlying diseases, genital urinary tract disorders, hospital wards, consumption of immunosuppressive drugs, and history of recent surgery [6][7] . On the other hand, evaluating the risk factors of developing antibiotic resistance in bacterial UTIs could be helpful in designing antimicrobial stewardship programs as well as selecting appropriate treatment for patients at higher risk of resistant-UTIs [6][7][8] .…”

Improved diagnostic prediction of the pathogenicity of bloodstream isolates ofStaphylococcus epidermidis

“…This can affect each patient's treatment in clinical practice, as discovering a pathogenic S. epidermidis isolate may provide insight into the general pathogenic traits possessed by each individuals' skin microbiome. This level of targeted treatment could reduce the overuse and misuse of antibiotics as antibiotic resistance has emerged as one of the major urgent threats to public health (57). Antibiotic treatment has potential adverse outcomes with adverse drug reactions and hypersensitivity reactions accounting for more than 3% of hospital admissions (58), which generates a significant burden on the health care system through secondary effects (59).…”

Editorial on: Genetic Determinants and Prediction of Antibiotic Resistance Phenotypes in Helicobacter pylori

“…This microbial feature is mainly due to the high rate of spontaneous mutations in DNA, which along with the extensive use of antibiotics strongly contribute to the development of antibiotic resistance. Such a phenomenon is becoming a worldwide concern if we consider that over 700,000 people die of antibiotic-resistant infections every year [2]. To counteract this severe spreading of drug resistance, multiple strategies have been developed, such as innovative drugs or new diagnostic tools.…”