Masculine defaults: Identifying and mitigating hidden cultural biases.

Abstract

Understanding and remedying women's underrepresentation in majority-male fields and occupations require the recognition of a lesser-known form of cultural bias called masculine defaults. Masculine defaults exist when aspects of a culture value, reward, or regard as standard, normal, neutral, or necessary characteristics or behaviors associated with the male gender role. Although feminist theorists have previously described and analyzed masculine defaults (e.g., Bem, 1984;de Beauvoir, 1953;Gilligan, 1982;Warren, 1977), here we define masculine defaults in more detail, distinguish them from more well-researched forms of bias, and describe how they contribute to women's underrepresentation. We additionally discuss how to counteract masculine defaults and possible challenges to addressing them. Efforts to increase women's participation in majority-male departments and companies would benefit from identifying and counteracting masculine defaults on multiple levels of organizational culture (i.e., ideas, institutional policies, interactions, individuals).

Beyond biology: The importance of cultural factors in explaining gender disparities in STEM preferences

“…A process-of-elimination approach works only if all possible factors are considered. As we describe below, Stewart-Williams and Halsey leave out of their analysis an important form of bias—masculine defaults (Cheryan & Markus, 2020)—that shapes preferences for CSEP fields.…”

“…However, there is another important form of bias that powerfully shapes the outcomes of women in STEM, even in the absence of differential treatment of women. Masculine defaults exist when traits and characteristics consistent with the male gender role are valued, rewarded, or viewed as standard (Cheryan & Markus, 2020). STEM fields are saturated with masculine defaults, such as valuing working late nights (Correll et al., 2014; Hewlett & Luce, 2006), cutthroat and competitive environments (Catanzaro et al., 2010; Reid et al., 2018), and policies that reward self-promotion (Kang, 2014; Rudman, 1998).…”

“…We provide evidence for an important and overlooked cultural factor that contributes to gender disparities in computer science, engineering, and physics: masculine defaults. Masculine defaults exist when cultures value and reward traits and characteristics associated with the male gender role and see them as standard (Cheryan & Markus, 2020). We provide examples of how changing computer science, engineering, and physics cultures can decrease gender disparities in participation.…”

Inequality in Researchers’ Minds: Four Guiding Questions for Studying Subjective Perceptions of Economic Inequality

“…Notably, even if not explicitly asked to do so, people are likely to report their perceptions of inequality that implicitly rely on such subgroups (e.g., Hester & Gray, 2020;Ito & Urland, 2005;Martin & Slepian, 2020). For instance, to the extent that Americans often treat White men as the default (Zarate & Smith, 1990)-particularly in organizational contexts (e.g., Eaton et al, 2020;Cheryan & Markus, 2020;Grossman & Porche, 2014;Wright, Eaton, & Skagerberg, 2015)-studying perceptions of inequality without clearly defining the reference group may lead people to report their perceptions of inequality among salient White men. In contrast, to the extent that people often associate poverty with racial minorities (Bonam, Yantis, & Taylor, 2020;de Goede, 1996), studying perceptions of inequality with a reference to poverty or welfare may lead people to report their perceptions of racial inequality rather than inequality in general.…”

Open science, communal culture, and women’s participation in the movement to improve science

“…Pragmatically, there is psychological safety in numbers (20)(21)(22), and women's critiques may be more likely to be offered and listened to when they are part of a larger scientific team. Further, because combative and adversarial behaviors are perceived as masculine, women may be less socialized to engage in these behaviors than men and/or view them as off-putting and less likely to be productive (23). In principle, a collectivist orientation may disfavor challenges to the establishment when framed as for the benefit of the challenger (i.e., gaining recognition) rather than for the collective good (i.e., improving and advancing science).…”