Masculinity and Race: The Dual Dilemma of Black Men

Abstract

This article delineates the special status of black men in contemporary society. First, considering some of the common stereotypes of black men from a historical perspective, alternative explanations are posited to counter prevailing views of the Afro-American male as emasculated, dominated by women, and lacking in positive self-esteem. T h e socialization process and problems of black youth are examined. Afterwards the special roles of lover, husband, and father are analyzed as black men interpret and carry them out. Finally, black male sexism and the response of black feminism are discussed, as are the problems and prospects for black men in American society.

A Dynamic-Ecological Model of Identity Formation and Conflict among Bisexually-Behaving African-American Men

“…The majority of bisexually-behaving African-American men, like all men, must not only reject femininity in demonstrating their masculinity, they must also reject the possibility of homosexuality (Kimmel, 1996). Scholars have noted that the rejection of homosexuality may be more salient to African-American men that other groups in their formation of a masculine identity (Lemelle & Battle, 2004;Staples, 1978;. In sum, the socialization experiences that bisexually-behaving African-American men have within their families and peer groups may affect identity formation and conflict in such a way that bisexual behavior, and self-labeling as heterosexual, represent ways to resolve the possible conflict they experience.…”

“…For example, ethnic and masculine identity formation may exert a greater influence in shaping sexual identity than vice versa. The formation of African-American identity appears to begin in early childhood (Cross & Fhagen-Smith, 1996;Harrison, Wilson, Pine, Chan, & Buriel, 1990;Phinney & Rosenthal, 1992) for AfricanAmerican men, as does masculine identity formation (Bowser, 1991;Franklin, 1985;Staples, 1978). Sexual identity formation has been shown to commence in adolescence (Brooks-Gunn & Mathews, 1979;Coleman, 1982;Herdt & McClintock, 2000) and may continue through middle adulthood for some AfricanAmerican MSM (Icard, 1996).…”

“…While this statement appears to be relevant primarily to heterosexual men, it demonstrates the strong links between masculinity and heterosexuality across sociohistorical contexts, and has implications for how we understand masculinity among bisexuallybehaving African-American men. With changing times and trends these men's masculinity will continue to be tied to their sexuality, and more specifically, their heterosexuality (Marable, 2000;Staples, 1978). As such, engagement in sexual behaviors with women may represent one way for bisexually-behaving African-American men who are primarily sexually attracted to men to maintain ESM identities that are aligned with their sociohistorical context.…”

“…Early in their psychological development, African-American men are, as a part of their formation of ethnic and masculine identities, socialized to be heterosexual and to actively pursue sexual relationships with only women (Franklin, 1985;Staples, 1978). The notion of being gay or bisexual maynotfitintopreformedideasofaroundthe meanings of being African-American and being a man.…”

“…Racial socialization is the major mechanism through which the family shapes ethnic (Jackson, McCullough, & Gurin, 1997;Jackson, McCullough, Gurin, & Bowman, 1991), sexual (Morales, 1990;Trujillo, 1997), and masculine (Staples, 1978) identity formation among African-American men. Research has shown that African-American parents prepare their children to the personal and social realities of being an ethnic minority in the U.S. by fostering and reaffirming a positive sense of ethnic identity among their children and preparing children for prejudice (McLoyd, Cauce, Takeuchi, & Wilson, 2000;Spencer & Markstrom-Adams, 1990;Wilson, Cooke, & Arrington, 1997).…”