Maturation of the adolescent brain

Abstract

Adolescence is the developmental epoch during which children become adults – intellectually, physically, hormonally, and socially. Adolescence is a tumultuous time, full of changes and transformations. The pubertal transition to adulthood involves both gonadal and behavioral maturation. Magnetic resonance imaging studies have discovered that myelinogenesis, required for proper insulation and efficient neurocybernetics, continues from childhood and the brain’s region-specific neurocircuitry remains structurally and functionally vulnerable to impulsive sex, food, and sleep habits. The maturation of the adolescent brain is also influenced by heredity, environment, and sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone), which play a crucial role in myelination. Furthermore, glutamatergic neurotransmission predominates, whereas gamma-aminobutyric acid neurotransmission remains under construction, and this might be responsible for immature and impulsive behavior and neurobehavioral excitement during adolescent life. The adolescent population is highly vulnerable to driving under the influence of alcohol and social maladjustments due to an immature limbic system and prefrontal cortex. Synaptic plasticity and the release of neurotransmitters may also be influenced by environmental neurotoxins and drugs of abuse including cigarettes, caffeine, and alcohol during adolescence. Adolescents may become involved with offensive crimes, irresponsible behavior, unprotected sex, juvenile courts, or even prison. According to a report by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the major cause of death among the teenage population is due to injury and violence related to sex and substance abuse. Prenatal neglect, cigarette smoking, and alcohol consumption may also significantly impact maturation of the adolescent brain. Pharmacological interventions to regulate adolescent behavior have been attempted with limited success. Since several factors, including age, sex, disease, nutritional status, and substance abuse have a significant impact on the maturation of the adolescent brain, we have highlighted the influence of these clinically significant and socially important aspects in this report.

Adolescent caffeine consumption increases adulthood anxiety-related behavior and modifies neuroendocrine signaling

“…Adolescent brain maturation is controlled by several known factors including sex hormones, eating and sleeping behaviors, exposure to stress, and exposure to drugs including therapeutic, licit and illicit drugs (Arain et al, 2013). All of these factors have the potential to positively and negatively impact brain development during this time.…”

“…Adolescence is a developmental period characterized by the maturation of the brain during which numerous endogenous and environmental factors impact the maturation process (Arain et al, 2013; Wahlstrom et al, 2010). Here, we explore the notion that adolescent caffeine consumption is an environmental factor that may increase the risk of developing neuropsychiatric conditions such as anxiety.…”

Hippocampal amino‐3‐hydroxy‐5‐methyl‐4‐isoxazolepropionic acid GluA1 (AMPAGluA1) receptor subunit involves in learning and memory improvement following treatment withCentella asiaticaextract in adolescent rats

“…During adolescence, drastic changes in neuronal architecture and function occur that concomitantly lead to distinct behavioral alteration. This alteration makes the adolescent development period a time of vulnerability and adjustment in psychological and physiological areas (Arain et al., 2013; Mengler et al., 2014; Schneider, 2013). Changes in nutrition may also affect neuronal structure and function, as well as neuron connectivity, leading to a long‐lasting beneficial effect (Beheshti et al., 2016).…”

“…At birth, the brain is very immature and it continues to develop from intrauterine life and proceeds well after birth and even adolescence. Adolescence is a critical period transitioning between childhood and adulthood, which is important for neurodevelopment that characterized by various changes in anatomy and physiology of the brains (Li, Masugi‐Tokita, Takanami, Yamada, & Kawata, 2012) as well as development of behavioral and biological systems (Hsu et al., 2015), cognitive, psychological, and maturation of neurotransmitter system (Arain et al., 2013; Mengler et al., 2014; Schneider, 2013). In rodents, the term ‘adolescence’ represents the entire postnatal period, which ranges from approximately a week after weaning period, at postnatal day 28 (PND 28), to as late as postnatal day 60 (PND 60) (Hammerslag & Gulley, 2014; Mengler et al., 2014).…”

“…During the transition period in adolescence, rodent's hippocampus and prefrontal cortex undergo significant development with learning and memory continue to develop throughout the adolescence period (Uysal et al., 2015). Moreover, during adolescence, drastic changes of neuronal architecture and function occur that concomitantly lead to distinct behavioral alteration (Arain et al., 2013; Mengler et al., 2014; Schneider, 2013). Thus, during this critical period of growth and development, the cells can be easily influenced by the nutrition intake (Beheshti, Hosseini, Vafaee, Shafei, & Soukhtanloo, 2016) and any nutritional nourishment in this stage can have beneficial effects to the brain.…”