Measurement of black carbon emissions from multiple engine and source types using laser-induced incandescence: sensitivity to laser fluence

Abstract

Abstract. A new regulatory standard for non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) mass-based emissions from aircraft engines has been adopted by the International Civil Aviation Organisation. One of the instruments used for the regulatory nvPM mass emissions measurements in aircraft engine certification tests is the Artium Technologies LII 300, which is based on laser-induced incandescence. The LII 300 response has been shown in some cases to vary with the type of black carbon particle measured. Hence it is important to identify a suitable black carbon emission source for instrument calibration. In this study, the relationship between the nvPM emissions produced by different engine sources and the response of the LII 300 instrument utilising the auto-compensating laser-induced incandescence (AC-LII) method was investigated. Six different sources were used, including a turboshaft helicopter engine, a diesel generator, an intermediate pressure test rig of a single-sector combustor, an auxiliary power unit gas turbine engine, a medium-sized diesel engine, and a downsized turbocharged direct-injection gasoline engine. Optimum LII 300 laser fluence levels were determined for each source and operating condition evaluated. It was found that an optimised laser fluence can be valid for real-time measurements from a variety of sources, where the mass concentration was independent of laser fluence levels covering the typical operating ranges for the various sources. However, it is important to perform laser fluence sweeps to determine the optimum fluence range as differences were observed in the laser fluence required between sources and fuels. We discuss the measurement merits, variability, and best practices in the real-time quantification of nvPM mass concentration using the LII 300 instrument and compare that with other diagnostic techniques, namely absorption-based methods such as photoacoustic spectroscopy (using a photoacoustic extinctiometer, PAX, and a micro soot sensor, MSS) and thermal-optical analysis (TOA). Particle size distributions were also measured using a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS). Overall, the LII 300 provides robust and consistent results when compared with the other diagnostic techniques across multiple engine sources and fuels. The results from this study will inform the development of updated calibration protocols to ensure repeatable and reproducible measurements of nvPM mass emissions from aircraft engines using the LII 300.

Aircraft-engine particulate matter emissions from conventional and sustainable aviation fuel combustion: comparison of measurement techniques for mass, number, and size

“…An additional experiment was performed to test the hypothesis that the laser fluence of the LII 300 may not be sufficiently high to heat nvPM to incandescence in aircraft-engine PM emissions from SAFs at different engine thrusts. The experimental design was similar to that of Yuan et al (2022). This hypothesis is related to electron microscopy evidence (Vander Wal et al, 2014) showing that the degree of graphitization of aircraft-engine soot may be substantially lowered at low thrusts.…”

The Measurement of Atmospheric Black Carbon: A Review

“…The LII technique [30,37,158] (Table 8), distinct from traditional thermal and optical methods, emerged in the 1970s to measure soot particles emitted from combustion. It has since undergone rapid development, with notable commercial instruments being the SP2, SP2-XR (company: https://www.dropletmeasurement.com/product/single-particle-sootphotometer-extended-range/, accessed on 28 November 2023), and SP-AMS [156,159,160].…”