Mechanism and challenges associated with adaptation and evolution of drug-resistant bacteria: an overview

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance is one of the leading challenges in the human healthcare segment. Advances in antimicrobial resistance studies have revealed various intrinsic, adaptive or acquired factors to be involved for pathogenicity. Antimicrobial agents are either bactericidal or bacteriostatic in action and prescribed according to the mode of action. Various factors are confined for the antimicrobial activity of these agents via biochemical, mechanical, physiological and molecular mechanisms. Microbial cell expresses a number of alternates responsible for the evolution of resistance against these agent activities involving cell surface modifications, enzyme inhibitions, modifications in efflux system, protein carriers and mutations in nucleic acids. Apart from this, the successful adaptations of such microbes have also been observed with the transfer of responsible genes through miscellaneous operations such as vertical evolution, horizontal gene transfer, co-selection, compensatory and random mutation. In addition, alterations or modifications in biochemical and physiological mechanisms at cellular levels are also responsible for antibiotic resistance. This article briefly shows the present scenario of antimicrobial resistance and the alternatives to overcome this global issue in future.

Biomolecular Characterization of Bacillus tequilensis A1C1 Isolated from Soil and Chromatographic Analysis of D-serine in its Cellular Fraction

“…Whereas, Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium involved in food poisoning and skin infection [54]. At the present number of lethal microbes have acquired many ways to surpass the antibacterial agent [55] which critically demands new approaches to get resolved. Till now many Bacillus strains such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus polymyxa, Bacillus brevis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus circulans, and Bacillus cereus have been reported to produce antibiotics [56].…”

Biomolecular Characterization of Bacillus tequilensis A1C1 Isolated from Soil and Chromatographic Analysis of D-serine in its Cellular Fraction

“…Whereas, Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium involved in food poisoning and skin infection [54]. At present number of lethal microbes have acquired many ways to surpass the antibacterial agent [55] which critically demands new approaches to get resolved. Till now many Bacillus strains such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus polymyxa, Bacillus brevis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus circulans, and Bacillus cereus have been reported to produce antibiotics [56].…”

Biomolecular Characterization of Bacillus tequilensis A1C1 Isolated from Soil and Chromatographic Analysis of D-serine in its Cellular Fraction

“…Whereas, Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive bacterium involved in food poisoning and skin infection [54]. At the present number of lethal microbes have acquired many ways to surpass the antibacterial agent [55] which critically demands new approaches to get resolved. Till now many Bacillus strains such as Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus polymyxa, Bacillus brevis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus circulans, and Bacillus cereus have been reported to produce antibiotics [56].…”