Abstract:Objectives: To investigate the effect of menstrual cycle (MC) and hormonal contraception (HC) phases in elite rowers training, performance and wellness monitoring.Methods: Twelve French elite rowers were follow-up for 4,2 cycles on average in their final preparation for the Olympics and Paralympics Games in Tokyo 2021 through an on-site longitudinal study based on repeated measures. Daily self-reported evaluation using Likert rating scales of wellness (sleep quality, fitness, mood, injuries’ pain), menstrual s… Show more
“…Yet, the increased trend in the intensity index in the most intensive effort displayed by the OC-users during the pills' taking phase should be further investigated. In addition, previous studies showed that the OC-users evaluate their training performance lower during the withdrawal phase ( 17 ).…”
Section: Discussionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Regarding the internal load variables, the heart rate was collected through heart rate monitors. The RPE, was collected after each training session using and application previously described ( 17 ), according to the BORG scale CR10 ( 18 ).…”
Section: Methodsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…The menstrual status monitoring relied on a menstrual diary, which was completed daily using the same application for RPE collection to determine the beginning and the end of the menstruation phase or the pills withdrawal phase ( 17 , 19 ). To investigate the influence of estimated MC and OC phases on training, different phases were defined depending on athletes' menstrual status ( 19 ).…”
Objectives(i) To classify training sessions of elite female cyclists according to an intensity index based on a longitudinal follow-up using multiparametric data collected in situ (ii) to measure the effect of estimated menstrual cycle (MC) phases and oral contraceptive pills (OC) phases on the athletes' training responses on each type of training identified.MethodThirteen elite French cyclists were followed up over 30 months and 5,190 training sessions were collected and 81 MC/OCs full cycles analyzed. Power sensors and position devices captured training data in situ, which was summarized into 14 external load variables. Principal Component Analysis and K-means clustering were used to identify cycling sessions according to an intensity load index. The clusters were then verified and categorized through the analysis of heart rate and rate of perceived effort. A calendar method was used to estimate 3 phases of the MC: menstruation, mid-cycle phase (MP) and late-cycle phase (LP). Two phases were defined among monophasic OC users: pills' taking/withdrawal.ResultsFour main types of training effort were identified: Intensive, Long, Medium and Light. In the MC group (n = 7; 52 cycles), the intensity index is 8% higher during the mid-cycle (vs. menstrual phase, p = 0.032) in the Intensive effort sessions. No differences were observed in Long, Medium or Light effort, nor between the phases of pills' taking/withdrawal among OC users.ConclusionThe clustering analyses developed allows a training classification and a robust method to investigate the influence of the MC/OC in situ. A better training response during the mid-cycle when the sessions are the most intense suggest an impact of the MC when the athletes approach their maximal capacity.
“…Yet, the increased trend in the intensity index in the most intensive effort displayed by the OC-users during the pills' taking phase should be further investigated. In addition, previous studies showed that the OC-users evaluate their training performance lower during the withdrawal phase ( 17 ).…”
Section: Discussionmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…Regarding the internal load variables, the heart rate was collected through heart rate monitors. The RPE, was collected after each training session using and application previously described ( 17 ), according to the BORG scale CR10 ( 18 ).…”
Section: Methodsmentioning
confidence: 99%
“…The menstrual status monitoring relied on a menstrual diary, which was completed daily using the same application for RPE collection to determine the beginning and the end of the menstruation phase or the pills withdrawal phase ( 17 , 19 ). To investigate the influence of estimated MC and OC phases on training, different phases were defined depending on athletes' menstrual status ( 19 ).…”
Objectives(i) To classify training sessions of elite female cyclists according to an intensity index based on a longitudinal follow-up using multiparametric data collected in situ (ii) to measure the effect of estimated menstrual cycle (MC) phases and oral contraceptive pills (OC) phases on the athletes' training responses on each type of training identified.MethodThirteen elite French cyclists were followed up over 30 months and 5,190 training sessions were collected and 81 MC/OCs full cycles analyzed. Power sensors and position devices captured training data in situ, which was summarized into 14 external load variables. Principal Component Analysis and K-means clustering were used to identify cycling sessions according to an intensity load index. The clusters were then verified and categorized through the analysis of heart rate and rate of perceived effort. A calendar method was used to estimate 3 phases of the MC: menstruation, mid-cycle phase (MP) and late-cycle phase (LP). Two phases were defined among monophasic OC users: pills' taking/withdrawal.ResultsFour main types of training effort were identified: Intensive, Long, Medium and Light. In the MC group (n = 7; 52 cycles), the intensity index is 8% higher during the mid-cycle (vs. menstrual phase, p = 0.032) in the Intensive effort sessions. No differences were observed in Long, Medium or Light effort, nor between the phases of pills' taking/withdrawal among OC users.ConclusionThe clustering analyses developed allows a training classification and a robust method to investigate the influence of the MC/OC in situ. A better training response during the mid-cycle when the sessions are the most intense suggest an impact of the MC when the athletes approach their maximal capacity.
“…The testing sessions were organized without taking into consideration the menstrual cycle. Indeed, Antero et al ( 32 ) highlight variations in performance between the periods of the menstrual cycle and differences in performance between players who have contraception compared with those who do not. We, therefore, suggest that future studies should consider the timing of the menstrual cycle to avoid misleading results or the lack of a training-induced effect.…”
IntroductionThe study aimed to interpret the evolution of the physical performance of rugby sevens and rugby union French international players from 2009 to 2020.Methods631 players from the French national teams were divided into three groups: forwards, backs and sevens. The performances evaluated were anthropometric characteristics, strength tests (1 RM bench press and 1 RM pull-up), aerobic capacity (YoYo IR1 test) and speed tests (10 m, 20 m and 50 m). The best performance of each player over a two-year period was kept for the analysis. Fluctuations were observed across the decade.ResultsThe anthropometric characteristics of female rugby sevens players tend to be taller and lighter than rugby union players. In rugby sevens, a moderate increase in maximal aerobic capacity was observed while sprint performances remained similar. Improvements in height and weight were observed over the last 10 years in rugby union players with a difference between the position. A moderate increase in sprinting performances and strength were observed both in backs and forwards.DiscussionThe overall improvement of strength and conditioning performances and anthropometrical evolution reflects the rugby environment characterized by the arrival of professional contracts and the structuration process of the clubs which allows a better quality of training and easier access to the infrastructures of the very high level.
“…In women taking combined contraceptive pills (mono-, bi-, tri-, or quadriphasic oral contraceptives) the exogenous hormones are fairly constant and reduce the endogenous levels of sex hormones, followed by a phase without exogenous hormones during pill withdrawal. These sex hormone fluctuations impact numerous physiological functions that may influence training [ 160 , 161 ] and performance [ 162 , 163 ], such as recovery [ 164 ], wellness [ 165 ], and in particular, considering the altitude environment, respiratory function [ 166 ]. Fig.…”
Sex differences in physiological responses to various stressors, including exercise, have been well documented. However, the specific impact of these differences on exposure to hypoxia, both at rest and during exercise, has remained underexplored. Many studies on the physiological responses to hypoxia have either excluded women or included only a limited number without analyzing sex-related differences. To address this gap, this comprehensive review conducted an extensive literature search to examine changes in physiological functions related to oxygen transport and consumption in hypoxic conditions. The review encompasses various aspects, including ventilatory responses, cardiovascular adjustments, hematological alterations, muscle metabolism shifts, and autonomic function modifications. Furthermore, it delves into the influence of sex hormones, which evolve throughout life, encompassing considerations related to the menstrual cycle and menopause. Among these physiological functions, the ventilatory response to exercise emerges as one of the most sex-sensitive factors that may modify reactions to hypoxia. While no significant sex-based differences were observed in cardiac hemodynamic changes during hypoxia, there is evidence of greater vascular reactivity in women, particularly at rest or when combined with exercise. Consequently, a diffusive mechanism appears to be implicated in sex-related variations in responses to hypoxia. Despite well-established sex disparities in hematological parameters, both acute and chronic hematological responses to hypoxia do not seem to differ significantly between sexes. However, it is important to note that these responses are sensitive to fluctuations in sex hormones, and further investigation is needed to elucidate the impact of the menstrual cycle and menopause on physiological responses to hypoxia.
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