Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Sources, Consequences and Solutions

Abstract

Microplastics are small fragments of plastic debris that have accumulated in the environment on a global scale. They originate from the direct release of particles of plastic and as a consequence of the fragmentation of larger items. Microplastics are widespread in marine habitats from the poles to the equator; from the sea surface and shoreline to the deep sea. They are ingested by a range of organisms including commercially important fish and shellfish and in some populations the incidence of ingestion is extensive. Laboratory studies indicate that ingestion could cause harmful toxicological and/or physical effects. However, our understanding of the relative importance of these effects in natural populations is very limited. Looking to the future it seems inevitable that the quantity of microplastic will increase in the environment, since even if we could stop new items of debris entering the ocean, fragmentation of the items already present would continue for years to come. The term microplastics has only been in popular usage for a decade and while many questions remain about the extent to which they could have harmful effects, the solutions to reducing this contamination are at hand. There are considerable synergies to be achieved by designing plastic items for both their lifetime in service and their efficient end-of-life recyclability, since capturing waste via recycling will reduce usage of non-renewable oil and gas used in the production of new plastics and at the same time reduce the accumulation of waste in managed facilities such as land fill as well as in the natural environment.

Global Distribution, Composition and Abundance of Marine Litter

“…Most microparticles are tiny plastic fragments known as microplastics, although other types of microparticles exist, such as fine fly ash particles emitted with flue gases from combustion, rubber from tyre wear and tear as well as glass and metal particles, all of which constantly enter the marine environment. The abundance and global distribution of microplastics in the oceans appeared to have steadily increased over past decades (Cole et al 2011;Claessens et al 2011;Thompson 2015), while a decrease in the average size of plastic litter has been observed over this time period (Barnes et al 2009). In recent years, the existence of microplastics and their potential impact on wildlife and human health has received increased public and scientific attention (Betts 2008;Galloway 2015;Lusher 2015).…”

Persistence of Plastic Litter in the Oceans

“…The origins of meso-, micro-and nano-plastics in the oceans are attributed to either products that incorporate such particles (such as cosmetics, sandblasting media, virgin pellets) or to the weathering degradation of larger plastic debris in the marine environment (Thompson 2015). In the former instance they are referred to as primary microparticles being introduced into the ocean already as micro-debris while in the latter case they are generated in the ocean environment from macro-debris.…”

Nanoplastics in the Aquatic Environment. Critical Review

“…Various recent reviews address the sources, abundance and negative effects of plastic litter (e.g. Derraik 2002;Andrady 2011;Hammer et al 2012;Koelmans et al 2014a), including several other chapters in this volume (Browne 2015;Galgani et al 2015;Thompson 2015). Science in this field is evolving rapidly, with initial studies mainly focusing on detection and abundance of >5 mm macroplastic in marine ecosystems and biota, followed by an increasing focus on <5 mm microplastics ranging down to the µm-scale.…”