Modeling the Exchanges of Energy, Water, and Carbon Between Continents and the Atmosphere

Abstract

Atmospheric general circulation models used for climate simulation and weather forecasting require the fluxes of radiation, heat, water vapor, and momentum across the land-atmosphere interface to be specified. These fluxes are calculated by submodels called land surface parameterizations. Over the last 20 years, these parameterizations have evolved from simple, unrealistic schemes into credible representations of the global soil-vegetation-atmosphere transfer system as advances in plant physiological and hydrological research, advances in satellite data interpretation, and the results of largescale field experiments have been exploited. Some modern schemes incorporate biogeochemical and ecological knowledge and, when coupled with advanced climate and ocean models, will be capable of modeling the biological and physical responses of the Earth system to global change, for example, increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide.Until the early 1980s, global atmospheric general circulation models (AGCMs) incorporated very simple land surface parameterizations (LSPs) to estimate the exchanges of energy, heat, and momentum between the land surface and the atmosphere. These have since evolved into a family of schemes that can realistically describe a comprehensive range of land-atmosphere interactions. These advanced schemes will be needed to understand the response of the biosphere and the climate system to global change, for example, increasing atmospheric CO 2 (1-3).Three generations of models have taken us from the early LSPs to where we stand now. The first, developed in the late 1960s and 1970s, was based on simple aerodynamic bulk transfer formulas and often uniform prescriptions of surface parameters (albedo, aerodynamic roughness, and soil moisture availability) over the continents (4). In the early 1980s, a second generation of models explicitly recognized the effects of vegetation in the calculation of the surface energy balance (5, 6). At the same time, global, spatially varying data of land surface properties were assembled from ecological and geographical surveys published in the scientific literature (7). The latest (third generation) models use modern theories relating photosynthesis and plant water relations to provide a consistent description of energy exchange, evapotranspiration, and carbon exchange by plants (8-10). Some are beginning to incorporate treatments of nutrient dynamics and biogeography, so that vegetation systems can move in response to climate shifts. A series of largescale field experiments have been executed to validate the process models and scaling assumptions involved in land-atmosphere schemes (3). These experiments have also accelerated the development of methods for translating satellite data into global surface parameter sets for the models. Theoretical Background and the First-Generation ModelsIt has been understood for nearly 200 years that the continents and the atmosphere exchange energy, water, and carbon with each other. However, it was not until the late 1960s with the construct...

An Urban Parameterization for a Global Climate Model. Part I: Formulation and Evaluation for Two Cities

“…However, until recently, most modern land surface models (i.e., second-or third-generation models; Sellers et al 1997) have not formally included urban parameterizations. Masson (2006) classifies urban parameterizations in three general categories: 1) empirical models; 2) vegetation models, with and without drag terms, adapted to include an urban canopy; and 3) single-layer and multilayer models that include a threedimensional representation of the urban canopy.…”

Scaling Gross Primary Production (GPP) over boreal and deciduous forest landscapes in support of MODIS GPP product validation

“…The algorithms within the model that represent physiological processes such as photosynthesis and respiration also reflect a large body of field and laboratory ecophysiological research (Sellers, Dickinson et al, 1997). LAI is well recognized as an important control on GPP/NPP in boreal and temperate forests (Bonan, 1993;Woodward, 1987) and it is often prescribed in process model applications (Hunt et al, 1996;Williams et al, 2001).…”

Analysis of the MISR LAI/FPAR product for spatial and temporal coverage, accuracy and consistency

“…LAI and FPAR are parameters that are descriptive of vegetation canopy structure and its energy absorption capacity, and are key state variables in most ecosystem productivity models and in global models of climate, hydrology, and ecology (Sellers et al, 1997). For example, Buermann et al (2001) reported that the use of satellite LAI reduces the model biases in near-surface air temperature in comparison to observations.…”

“…The MISR team is responsible for development and validation of algorithms and for producing a series of products which include vegetation green Leaf Area Index (LAI) and Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (400-700 nm) absorbed by vegetation (FPAR). These products are required to describe the exchange of fluxes of energy, mass (e.g., water and CO 2 ) and momentum between the surface and atmosphere (Sellers et al, 1997).…”