Molecular evolution of influenza B virus during 2011–2017 in Chaoyang, Beijing, suggesting the free influenza vaccine policy

Abstract

Two influenza B virus lineages, B/Victoria and B/Yamagata, are co-circulating in human population. While the two lineages are serologically distinct and TIV only contain one lineage. It is important to investigate the epidemiological and evolutionary dynamics of two influenza B virus lineages in Beijing after the free influenza vaccine policy from 2007. Here, we collected the nasopharyngeal swabs of 12657 outpatients of influenza-like illness and subtyped by real-time RT-PCR during 2011–2017. The HA and NA genes of influenza B were fully sequenced. The prevalence is the highest in the 6–17 years old group among people infected with influenza B. Yamagata-lineage virus evolved to two inter-clade from 2011–2014 to 2014–2017. The amino acids substitutions of HA1 region were R279K in strains of 2011–2014 and L173Q, M252V in strains of 2014–2017. Substitutions L58P, I146V were observed in HA1 region of Victoria-lineage virus in 2011–2012 and I117V, N129D were showed in 2015–2017. Phylogenetic analysis of NA showed Yamagata-Victoria inter-lineage reassortant occurred in 2013–2014. Influenza B mainly infect the school-aged children in Beijing and the free influenza vaccine inoculation does not seem to block school-age children from infection with influenza B. The antigen characteristics of circulating influenza B were different to the recommended vaccine strains. We concluded that the Victoria-lineage vaccine strain should been changed and the free influenza vaccine should be revalued.

Epidemiology and Molecular Analyses of Influenza B Viruses in Senegal from 2010 to 2019

“…Interestingly, we observed B/Yam-B/Victoria inter-lineage reassortment (Yamagata-lineage HA and Victoria-lineage NA) in 2015 and 2016. These types of reassortments have also been reported in several countries, such as Thailand in 2014–2015 [ 47 ], Cameroon between 2014 and 2017 [ 46 ], China in 2014–2015 season [ 28 ] and Kenya in 2016 [ 44 ]. In addition, analyses of sequences from GISAID showed that Yamagata clade 3 reassortant viruses were circulating in several other African countries, including Burkina Faso (2015), Congo (2016), Côte d’Ivoire (2015), Ghana (2015–2016), Mali (2015–2016), Mozambique (2015), Niger (2015–2017), Nigeria (2015), Rwanda (2016), South Africa (2015), Tanzania (2015–2016), Togo (2016), Uganda (2016) and Zambia (2014–2015).…”

“…We also observed that the clade 1A of B/Vic and the clade 3 of B/Yam were the only circulating strains in Senegal since 2012 and 2015, respectively. As observed in Senegal, circulations of B/Vic (clade 1A and 1B) and B/Yam (clades 2 and 3) viruses were reported in several countries, including Kenya [ 44 ], Thailand [ 38 ], Italy [ 45 ], Uruguay [ 36 ], Malaysia [ 30 ], China [ 28 ] and Cameroon [ 46 ]. Nonetheless, the shift in patterns of dominance of the clades can differ from one country to another.…”

“…This rate is similar to those found in England (25%: 2003–2013), Uruguay (26%: 2012–2019) and Finland (26%: 1999–2012); however, this rate was higher than the worldwide proportion (20%) reported in many countries from different geographical areas, including South Africa (17%: 2005–2014), Australia (17%: 2001–2014), the United States of America (16%: 2000–2012) and Brazil (19%: 2006–2014) [ 3 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]. However, higher rates were found in China (Southern China (29%: 2006–2012 and 2011–2017); Northern China (31%: 2005–2012)) [ 25 , 28 ], Kenya (31%: 2012–2016) [ 29 ] and Madagascar (33%: 2002–2013) [ 25 ]. Among patients presenting ILI or SARI symptoms during the study period, our data showed a global prevalence of 8.6% of influenza B.…”

Surveillance of influenza B severe hospitalized cases during 10 seasons in Catalonia: Does the lineage make a difference?

“…Based on genetic divergence of the viral hemagglutinin (HA) gene, two antigenically distinct phylogenetic lineages represented by the prototype virus B/Victoria/2/87 (B/Victoria-lineage, B/VIC) and B/Yamagata/16/88 (B/Yamagata-lineage, B/YAM) have been co-circulating globally and often alternating in regional dominance. 7,8 Since 2015, during the pre-COVID-19 pandemic seasons, both lineages have shown unusually high levels of epidemic activity, the reasons for which are still unclear. 9,10 The primary measure to prevent influenza-related disease is vaccination.…”

Phylodynamic analysis in the understanding of the current COVID-19 pandemic and its utility in vaccine and antiviral design and assessment

“…10 In the context of the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, these data could be used for making inferences and predictions about the behavior of this emerging infection and the effectiveness of vaccination strategies in the short, mid, and long term, as has been used for influenza. 11 , 12 Moreover, the antiviral design could be improved and the effectiveness of viral control measures over time could be assessed. 8 …”