Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Fungicide Resistance in Citrus Postharvest Green Mold

Abstract

The necrotrophic fungus Penicillium digitatum (Pd) is responsible for the green mold disease that occurs during postharvest of citrus and causes enormous economic losses around the world. Fungicides remain the main method used to control postharvest green mold in citrus fruit storage despite numerous occurrences of resistance to them. Hence, it is necessary to find new and more effective strategies to control this type of disease. This involves delving into the molecular mechanisms underlying the appearance of resistance to fungicides during the plant–pathogen interaction. Although mechanisms involved in resistance to fungicides have been studied for many years, there have now been great advances in the molecular aspects that drive fungicide resistance, which facilitates the design of new means to control green mold. A wide review allows the mechanisms underlying fungicide resistance in Pd to be unveiled, taking into account not only the chemical nature of the compounds and their target of action but also the general mechanism that could contribute to resistance to others compounds to generate what we call multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotypes. In this context, fungal transporters seem to play a relevant role, and their mode of action may be controlled along with other processes of interest, such as oxidative stress and fungal pathogenicity. Thus, the mechanisms for acquisition of resistance to fungicides seem to be part of a complex framework involving aspects of response to stress and processes of fungal virulence.

Molecular Physicochemical Properties of Selected Pesticides as Predictive Factors for Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis-Dependent Cell Death in Caco-2 and HepG2 Cells

“…Although developed to target insects nAChR, adverse effects on vertebrate cell and in vivo animal models were reported, taken together with the fact that high levels of IMD and of its metabolites have been detected in several food products, such as honey, fruits, and vegetables [ 25 ]. IMZ (or enilconazole) is a broad spectrum systemic fungicide that blocks ergosterol biosynthesis by targeting cytochrome P450-dependent sterol 14α-demethylase (Cyp51; EC 1.14.13.70) and blocking the production of C14-demethylation of lanosterol, a precursor of ergosterol, [ 26 ]. IMZ is used worldwide to prevent postharvest decay of fruit (bananas, citrus fruit, and others), vegetables, and ornamentals [ 27 ].…”

Deciphering Molecular Determinants Underlying Penicillium digitatum’s Response to Biological and Chemical Antifungal Agents by Tandem Mass Tag (TMT)-Based High-Resolution LC-MS/MS

“…MFS transporters are involved in virulence by regulating the secretion of host-specific toxins or providing protection against plant defence components [ 32 ]. Together with ABC transporters, these carriers are the most important efflux pumps involved in fungal protection against fungicides [ 33 , 34 ]. More importantly, they were also reported to increase resistance to fungicides through their ability to transport a wide variety of compounds, such as toxic products [ 23 ].…”

The population genetics of adaptation through copy-number variation in a fungal plant pathogen

“…For example, glucose limitation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cultures has resulted in gene duplications encoding glucose transporters, while sulfate limitation resulted in a gene duplication encoding a high-affinity sulfate transporter (Mishra and Whetstine 2016). In line with these observations, CNV of genes targeted by fungicides have been repeatedly associated with resistance (Coste et al 2007;Sionov et al 2010;Zhang et al 2019;Morschhäuser 2016;Steenwyk and Rokas 2018;Sánchez-Torres 2021;Leroux and Walker 2013;Ma et al 2006). Azoles are the most used fungicides both in agricultural practices and clinical settings to treat fungal infections (Cools and Fraaije 2013;Azevedo et al 2015).…”