Monkeypox Virus in Nigeria: Infection Biology, Epidemiology, and Evolution

Abstract

Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is a member of orthopoxvirus genus. The reemergence of MPXV in 2017 (at Bayelsa state) after 39 years of no reported case in Nigeria, and the export of travelers’ monkeypox (MPX) from Nigeria to other parts of the world, in 2018 and 2019, respectively, have raised concern that MPXV may have emerged to occupy the ecological and immunological niche vacated by smallpox virus. This review X-rays the current state of knowledge pertaining the infection biology, epidemiology, and evolution of MPXV in Nigeria and worldwide, especially with regard to the human, cellular, and viral factors that modulate the virus transmission dynamics, infection, and its maintenance in nature. This paper also elucidates the role of recombination, gene loss and gene gain in MPXV evolution, chronicles the role of signaling in MPXV infection, and reviews the current therapeutic options available for the treatment and prevention of MPX. Additionally, genome-wide phylogenetic analysis was undertaken, and we show that MPXV isolates from recent 2017 outbreak in Nigeria were monophyletic with the isolate exported to Israel from Nigeria but do not share the most recent common ancestor with isolates obtained from earlier outbreaks, in 1971 and 1978, respectively. Finally, the review highlighted gaps in knowledge particularly the non-identification of a definitive reservoir host animal for MPXV and proposed future research endeavors to address the unresolved questions.

Genomic Sequencing and Analysis of a Novel Human Cowpox Virus With Mosaic Sequences From North America and Old World Orthopoxvirus

“…The vaccinia-like virus infections were reported in different places and host species ( Dumbell and Richardson, 1993 ; Abrahão et al, 2015 ; Miranda et al, 2017 ), including humans ( Damaso et al, 2007 ; Megid et al, 2012 ). In different countries in Africa, human cases of MPXV infections have been reported ( Nakoune et al, 2017 ; Durski et al, 2018 ; Yinka-Ogunleye et al, 2019 ; Alakunle et al, 2020 ); imported MPXV cases were as well reported in Israel, the United Kingdom and Singapore ( Vaughan et al, 2018 ; Erez et al, 2019 ; Ng et al, 2019 ). In Europe, cases of cowpox were reported ( Tryland et al, 1998 ; Kalthoff et al, 2014 ; Ferrier et al, 2021 ).…”

Transmission dynamics of Monkeypox virus: a mathematical modelling approach

“…Monkeypox virus is mainly transmitted to humans from wild animals such as rodents and primates, but transmission often occurs from humans to humans. Human to human transmission has been linked to respiratory droplets and contact with bodily fluids, a contaminated patient's environment or items, and a skin lesion on an infected individual (Alakunle et al 2020). Monkeypox virus has emerged as the most common orthopox virus after the eradication of the smallpox (Kantele et al 2016).…”

Here, There, and Everywhere: The Wide Host Range and Geographic Distribution of Zoonotic Orthopoxviruses

“…Among Old World non-human primates, cynomolgus monkeys ( Macaca fascicularis ), sooty mangabeys ( Cercocebus atys ), orangutans ( Pongo pygmaeus ), and chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ) can be infected with MPXV. Among New World non-human primates [ 60 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 ], the common marmosets ( Callithrix jacchus ) was shown to be susceptible to MPXV infection through intravenous inoculation [ 76 ] ( Table 1 ).…”