Morphological and molecular evidence converge upon a robust phylogeny of the megadiverse Holometabola

Abstract

We present the largest morphological character set ever compiled for Holometabola. This was made possible through an optimized acquisition of data. Based on our analyses and recently published hypotheses based on molecular data, we discuss higherlevel phylogeny and evolutionary changes. We comment on the information content of different character systems and discuss the role of morphology in the age of phylogenomics. Microcomputer tomography in combination with other techniques proved highly efficient for acquiring and documenting morphological data. Detailed anatomical information (356 characters) is now available for 30 representatives of all holometabolan orders. A combination of traditional and novel techniques complemented each other and rapidly provided reliable data. In addition, our approach facilitates documenting the anatomy of model organisms. Our results show little congruence with studies based on rRNA, but confirm most clades retrieved in a recent study based on nuclear genes: Holometabola excluding Hymenoptera, Coleopterida (= Strepsiptera + Coleoptera), Neuropterida excl. Neuroptera, and Mecoptera. Mecopterida (= Antliophora + Amphiesmenoptera) was retrieved only in Bayesian analyses. All orders except Megaloptera are monophyletic. Problems in the analyses are caused by taxa with numerous autapomorphies and ⁄ or inapplicable character states due to the loss of major structures (such as wings). Different factors have contributed to the evolutionary success of various holometabolan lineages. It is likely that good flying performance, the ability to occupy different habitats as larvae and adults, parasitism, liquid feeding, and co-evolution with flowering plants have played important roles. We argue that even in the ''age of phylogenomics'', comparative morphology will still play a vital role. In addition, morphology is essential for reconstructing major evolutionary transformations at the phenotypic level, for testing evolutionary scenarios, and for placing fossil taxa.

Bridging the gap between chewing and sucking in the hemipteroid insects: <br />new insights from Cretaceous amber

“…A recent phylogenomic analysis provided a highly resolved insect phylogeny, which is in general overall agreement with morphologically derived phylogenies (e.g. Beutel et al 2011;Yoshizawa 2011). The most significant conflict between morphology and phylogenomics concerns the monophyly of the Paraneoptera; phylogenomics places Psocodea as sister group of Holometabola , whereas morphological analysis places Psocodea as sister to Condylognatha (Yoshizawa & Saigusa 2001;Friedemann et al 2014;Beutel et al 2014).…”

Is the Carboniferous †Adiphlebia lacoana really the "oldest beetle"? Critical reassessment and description of a new Permian beetle family

“…Béthoux (2009) assigned these specimens to Coleoptera based exclusively on one feature of inter-veinal network formed from the wing membrane: the presence of rows of angular cells parallel to the principal veins and flanking the intercalary pseudo-veins. No apomorphic features of Coleoptera are mentioned from those listed by Beutel & Haas (2000) or Beutel et al (2008), and no wing organ apomorphies suggested by Kukalová-Peck & Lawrence (2004) for Coleopterida (Coleoptera + Strepsiptera) (Wiegmann et al, 2009;Beutel et al, 2011) are present.…”

Progress, pitfalls and parallel universes: a history of insect phylogenetics

“…Both beetles and neuropteroids were polyphyletic, owing to contamination. The paper is best remembered for its recovery of Halteria, a hypothesis that they would vigorously defend [74,164 -167] until morphology [48,168] and additional genes [47,154,169,170] overturned it 15 years after it had been proposed.…”

“…More recently, the palaeoentomologist Alexandr P. Rasnitsyn described approximately 250 new genera and over 800 new species of fossil insects. He suggested a sistergroup relationship between Hymenoptera (sawflies, bees, wasps and ants) and the remaining Holometabola [43] before this was established with formal analyses of extensive morphological or molecular datasets [47][48][49][50] (see Ronquist's and others' reanalysis [51]). Rasnitsyn [43] suggested that insect flight originated from gliding [52].…”