Multidrug-resistant Opportunistic and Pathogenic Bacteria Contaminate Algerian Banknotes Currency

Abstract

Currency is one of the most exchanged items in human communities as it is used daily in exchange for goods and services. It is handled by persons with different hygiene standards and can transit in different environments. Hence, money can constitute a reservoir for different types of human pathogens. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of Algerian banknotes to shelter opportunistic pathogenic and multiresistant bacteria. To that end, 200 circulating notes of four different denominations were collected from various places and analyzed for their bacterial loads and contents. Besides, predominant strains were identified and characterized by biochemical and molecular methods, and their resistance profiles against 34 antibiotics were determined. Our results indicated that 100% of the studied banknotes were contaminated with bacteria. The total bacterial concentrations were relatively high, and different bacterial groups were grown, showing important diversity. In total, 48 predominant strains were identified as belonging to 17 genera. Staphylococcus and Micrococcus were the most prevalent genera, followed by Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Acinetobacter. Antibiotic susceptibility testing showed that all the isolates harbored resistance to at least two molecules, and worrying resistance levels were observed. These findings prove that Algerian currency harbors opportunistic multiresistant bacteria and could potentially act as a vehicle for the spread of bacterial diseases and as a reservoir for antibiotic resistance genes among the community. Therefore, no cash payment systems should be developed and generalized to minimize cash handling and subsequent potential health risks.

Screening paper currency for Mycobacterium tuberculosis using loop-mediated isothermal amplification

“…According to our findings, 11.3% of the currency notes included in the study showed the presence of genomic DNA of M. tuberculosis. It has been reported that microbial contamination of currency notes can be up to 100% [17]. However, no such data is available for M. tuberculosis.…”

“…The most commonly described pathogenic bacterial genera are Escherichia (E. coli), Klebsiella, Staphylococcus, Enterococcus, Salmonella, Shigella, Pseudomonas, and Proteus [7,[14][15][16]. In recent literature, several studies have also explored the potential of antibiotic-resistant strains transmission via the currency notes [7,10,13,14,[16][17][18][19][20]. Most of these studies have reported the presence of pathogens-causing foodborne illnesses.…”

Stability of pathogens on banknotes and coins: A narrative review

“…aureus. 2,41,55,59 Similarly, S. aureus was found on 3.6% and 4.2% of cash collected from markets in the city of Manila, Philippines, and all Turkish paper currencies tested, respectively. 48,61 In line with this data, Uneke and Ogbu reported 13% of the investigated paper currency in Nigeria to be contaminated with staphylococci.…”

“…55 Similarly, Micrococcus spp. has been frequently (19%) isolated from Algerian banknotes 59 In contrast, in Poland, Micrococcus spp.…”

“…41 Among dirty and mutilated currency notes, a higher bacterial load compared to clean and mint banknotes could be detected. 47,49,59 This has been traced back on soil and dirt which act as organic protection from drying and thus increase the bacterial survival. 55,60 Additionally to various currencies, also coins and banknotes differ in their bacterial load, 42 with higher contamination on banknotes.…”