Nanocellulose-Based Inks for 3D Bioprinting: Key Aspects in Research Development and Challenging Perspectives in Applications—A Mini Review

Abstract

Nanocelluloses have emerged as a catalogue of renewable nanomaterials for bioink formulation in service of 3D bioprinting, thanks to their structural similarity to extracellular matrices and excellent biocompatibility of supporting crucial cellular activities. From a material scientist’s viewpoint, this mini-review presents the key research aspects of the development of the nanocellulose-based bioinks in 3D (bio)printing. The nanomaterial properties of various types of nanocelluloses, including bacterial nanocellulose, cellulose nanofibers, and cellulose nanocrystals, are reviewed with respect to their origins and preparation methods. Different cross-linking strategies to integrate into multicomponent nanocellulose-based bioinks are discussed in terms of regulating ink fidelity in direct ink writing as well as tuning the mechanical stiffness as a bioactive cue in the printed hydrogel construct. Furthermore, the impact of surface charge and functional groups on nanocellulose surface on the crucial cellular activities (e.g., cell survival, attachment, and proliferation) is discussed with the cell–matrix interactions in focus. Aiming at a sustainable and cost-effective alternative for end-users in biomedical and pharmaceutical fields, challenging aspects such as biodegradability and potential nanotoxicity of nanocelluloses call for more fundamental comprehension of the cell–matrix interactions and further validation in in vivo models.

Recent advances in 3D printing of nanocellulose: structure, preparation, and application prospects

“…Some studies have shown that oxidised nanocellulose materials are susceptible to hydrolysis and hence could be degraded in human body. 289 With regards to its application in electronics, thermal resistance between the nanofiller and substrate in 3D printed construct should be carefully designed to provide an effective thermal conductivity and dissipation of heat.…”

Scientometric Analysis and Systematic Review of Multi-Material Additive Manufacturing of Polymers

“…Similar to FDM, DIW is also a high-efficiency method to deposit multi-material printed parts because it is of low cost and can be simply carried out [ 95 , 96 , 97 , 98 ]. More importantly, DIW exhibits tremendous potential because it is highly suitable for printing a large variety of different functional materials through multiple inkjet heads or nozzles to deposit different materials, including metallic particles [ 99 , 100 , 101 ], ceramic particles [ 102 , 103 , 104 ], extracellular matrices [ 105 , 106 , 107 , 108 ], hydrogels, and elastomers and epoxy thermosets [ 109 , 110 , 111 112 ]. As a result, DIW with multiple nozzles has become a favored candidate for multi-material 3D printing.…”

Review of Low-Cost 3D Bioprinters: State of the Market and Observed Future Trends

“…Yet, due to the novelty of this niche market, no bioprinter reviews that we could find focus on the latest commercially available low-cost systems. Specifically, the previously published reviews either give an overview of the entire bioprinting field (with a focus on the evolution of the printing technologies), 9–13 review bio-inks, 14–27 or discuss specific applications (e.g., cardiovascular tissue models, 14,28–35 bone tissue models, 36–48 cartilage tissue models, 42,47,49–52 nerve tissue models, 53–61 skin tissue models, 48,62–66 and in vivo bioprinting 67–…”