“…Polymeric-based NPs, such as PS NPs, may enter the environment both from primary sources, when present as newly synthesized nano-polymers, which are not retained by WWTPs (Blair et al, 2017), and secondary sources, as nanoscale polymers derived from the degradation of mismanaged products (Lambert et al, 2013;Andrady, 2017). Polymeric NPs have been used in several nanotechnology applications, ranging from biosensors and photonics (Velev and Kaler, 1999) to cosmetics (Guterres et al, 2007;Leslie, 2014;Hernandez et al, 2017), food nanocomposites (Silvestre et al, 2011;Hernandez et al, 2019), and drug nanocarriers (Jiménez-Fernández et al, 2014). In nanomedicine, many in vitro studies in human cell lines have been carried out using functionalized PS NPs to provide insights into the specific mechanisms of cell recognition, signaling cascade, and pathways of toxicity (e.g., Johnston et al, 2010;Bexiga et al, 2011;Liu et al, 2011;Salvati et al, 2011;Fröhlich et al, 2012;Wang et al, 2013;Loos et al, 2014).…”