Naturalistic Observations of Spectator Behavior at Youth Hockey Games

Abstract

The purpose of the current study was to conduct an examination of spectator (i.e., parental) behavior at youth hockey games in a large Canadian city. Using naturalistic observation methods, an event sampling procedure was used to code spectators’ comments. Of specific interest were the type of remarks made, who made them (i.e., males versus females), the intensity of those remarks and whether they varied by child age, gender, and competitive level. We were also interested in whether the majority of onlookers’ comments were actually directed at the players, on-ice officials, or fellow spectators. Five observers attended 69 hockey games during the 2006–2007 hockey season. There was a significant variability in the number of comments made, with an average of 105 comments per game. The majority of the comments were generally positive ones, directed at the players. Negative comments, although quite infrequent, were directed largely at the referees. Females made more comments than did males, although males made more negative and corrective comments, and females made mostly positive comments. Comments varied significantly as a function of gender and competitive level. Proportionally more negative comments were made at competitive, as opposed to recreational games. An interaction was found for female spectators as their comments varied as a function of both the competitive level and the gender of the players. Results of this study are in direct contrast to media reports of extreme parental violence at youth hockey games, and provide unique information about the role of parental involvement at youth sporting events.

Parent-child communication in sport: Bridging the gap between theory and research

“…For example, parent-child communication in youth sport settings may Parent-child interactions can range from positive and uplifting to negative and demeaning (Holt et al, 2008;Jeffery-Tosoni et al, 2015). Contrary to anecdotal evidence and suggestions that parents shouldn't be involved in youth sport (Pink, 2015), parent-child communication in youth sport settings has been described as largely positive, with only 5-10% of parent communication during games being classified as negative (Bowker et al, 2009;Dorsch et al, 2015a;Holt et al, 2008). Moreover, it is important to consider that parent comments cannot simply be dichotomized as positive or negative; rather, they may also be direct and instruct performance (Holt et al, 2008;Omli & LaVoi, 2006).…”

“…Holt and colleagues (2008) highlight a significant limitation in parent sport communication research: the limited use of theoretical frameworks to ground the research. Explanatory and descriptive studies, while illuminating several important facets of parent-child interaction in sport, have failed to offer theoretical explanations for their findings (see, Bloom & Drane, 2008;Bowker, Boekhoven, Nolan, Bauhaus, Glover, Powell, & Taylor, 2009;Hennessey & Schwartz 2007;Omli & LaVoi, 2006). Very few researchers have applied a lens informed by family, human development, and interpersonal communication theory (c.f., Dorsch, Smith, Wilson, & McDonough, 2015a;Dorsch, Smith, & McDonough, 2015b;Holt et al, 2008).…”

“…Moreover, it is important to consider that parent comments cannot simply be dichotomized as positive or negative; rather, they may also be direct and instruct performance (Holt et al, 2008;Omli & LaVoi, 2006). The motivation behind why parents make certain comments varies, and previous literature has identified that empathy with a child, parent goals, the sex of the parent and the child, the competitive level, the emotional intensity of the situation, and a parent's knowledge of sport can all impact parent-child communication in organized youth sport (Bowker et al, 2009;Dorsch et al, 2015a;Holt et al, 2008).…”

“…In a study designed to assess these perceptions, Omli and LaVoi (2006) found that children perceive parent communication differently (and often more negatively) than the parents themselves. Indeed, researchers have found that a significant proportion of communication during competition is either instructive and performance contingent (Holt et al, 2008), or corrective (Bowker et al, 2009) in nature. Findings consistently indicate that children want their parents to refrain from giving specific and repeated advice (e.g., in-game adjustments or strategies), blaming others for a loss, yelling after mistakes, arguing with others, encouraging cheating, and saying mean things or cursing (Knight et al, 2010;Omli, LaVoi, & Wiese-Bjornstal, 2008).…”

ATTENTO: ATTENTion Observed for Automated Spectator Crowd Analysis

“…Regarding the sociology of sport, many works have been produced, but most of them deal with violence in sport, as shown in [22], where the motivations that bring people to watch sports alive are also discussed. Finally, few works have specifically considered fans of hockey teams (for instance [23]), analyzing how their support can influence the players. In this work we have taken inspiration from the analyses displayed in the works mentioned above and focused on extracting locomotion and gesticulation features from the video recordings of the spectators.…”