Nibbling versus Gorging: Metabolic Advantages of Increased Meal Frequency

Abstract

We studied the effect of increasing the frequency of meals on serum lipid concentrations and carbohydrate tolerance in normal subjects. Seven men were assigned in random order to two metabolically identical diets. One diet consisted of 17 snacks per day (the nibbling diet), and the other of three meals per day (the three-meal diet); each diet was followed for two weeks. As compared with the three-meal diet, the nibbling diet reduced fasting serum concentrations of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B by a mean (+/- SE) of 8.5 +/- 2.5 percent (P less than 0.02), 13.5 +/- 3.4 percent (P less than 0.01), and 15.1 +/- 5.7 percent (P less than 0.05), respectively. Although the mean blood glucose level and serum concentrations of free fatty acids, 3-hydroxybutyrate, and triglyceride were similar during both diets, during the nibbling diet the mean serum insulin level decreased by 27.9 +/- 6.3 percent (P less than 0.01) and the mean 24-hour urinary C-peptide output decreased by 20.2 +/- 5.6 percent (P less than 0.02). In addition, the mean 24-hour urinary cortisol excretion was lower by 17.3 +/- 5.9 percent (P less than 0.05) at the end of the nibbling diet than at the end of the three-meal diet. The blood glucose, serum insulin, and C-peptide responses to a standardized breakfast and the results of an intravenous glucose-tolerance test conducted at the end of each diet were similar. We conclude that in addition to the amount and type of food eaten, the frequency of meals may be an important determinant of fasting serum lipid levels, possibly in relation to changes in insulin secretion.

Glycemic index in chronic disease: a review

“…However, it has been shown that neither fat nor protein in the amounts found in most foods (with the exception of peanuts and most nuts) Lower postprandial glucose rise (Jenkins et al, 1990(Jenkins et al, ,1992Bertelsen et al, 1993;Jones et al, 1993) Reduced daily mean insulin levels (Jenkins et al, 1990(Jenkins et al, ,1992Bertelsen et al, 1993;Jones et al, 1993) Flatter gastric inhibitory polypeptide response (Jenkins et al, 1990(Jenkins et al, ,1992Bertelsen et al, 1993) Decreased 24 h urinary C-peptide output (Jenkins et al, 1989(Jenkins et al, ,1992 Prolonged suppression of plasma free fatty acids (Jenkins et al, 1990) Reduced urinary catecholamine output (Jenkins et al, 1990) Lower total and LDL cholesterol levels (Jenkins et al, 1989Arnold et al, 1993;Cohn 1964) Reduced hepatic cholesterol synthesis (Jones et al, 1993) Decreased serum apolipoprotein B levels (Jenkins et al, 1989) Decreased serum uric acid levels Raised urinary uric acid excretion Adapted from Jenkins et al (1995). Glycemic index in chronic disease LS Augustin et al significantly alters the glycemic response (Wolever et al, 1994).…”

“…Increasing meal frequency in isocaloric diets in diabetic and non-diabetic subjects has been shown to reduce postprandial glucose rise (Jenkins et al, 1992, Bertelsen et al, 1993Jones et al, 1993), daily insulin levels (Jenkins et al, 1992;Bertelsen et al, 1993;Jones et al, 1993) and 24 h urinary C-peptide output (Jenkins et al, 1989(Jenkins et al, ,1992. Increasing meal frequency is now included in the recommendations given for the management of diabetes by the American Diabetes Association (1994).…”

“…The 'nibbling' vs 'gorging' paradigm has shown that increasing meal frequency (from 3 to > 9 meal=day) reduced total and LDL cholesterol, apolipoprotein-B and serum uric acid levels in healthy subjects, after a period of 2 weeks (Arnold et al, 1993;Jenkins et al, 1989Jones et al, 1993). Significant lipid reductions in total and LDL cholesterol (0.23, 0.16 mmol=l, respectively) were also reported in the Rancho Bernardo trial on more than 2000 men and women aged 50 -89 y, when meal frequency was increased from 1 -2 meals per day to 4 meals per day (Edelstein et al, 1992).…”

Sleep, circadian rhythm and body weight: parallel developments

“…The reduced diet-induced thermogenesis with the irregular meal frequency may lead to weight gain in the long term (102) . With a regular meal frequency glucose excursions are blunted, net insulin production is reduced, and LDLcholesterol concentrations tend to be lowered, mainly due to gastric emptying slowing down, and insulin production being reduced (103)(104)(105)(106)(107)(108)(109)(110)(111) . The net result is that lipid oxidation is favoured at the expense of glucose oxidation and lipid storage, and cholesterol synthesis is reduced.…”

“…This may reduce adiposity and the level of circulating fatty acids, thereby leading to systematic, adaptive changes in both lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. Also examples of long-term responses to a sustained regular meal frequency such as improved glucose tolerance, and moderately reduced fasting plasma total and LDL-cholesterol, and a higher HDL:LDL cholesterol ratio are observed in normolipidaemic free-living subjects, as well as in type-II diabetes patients (103)(104)(105)(106)(107)(108)(109)(110)(111) . Also for cholesterol synthesis, meal frequency-dependent control of cholesterogenesis appeared to be mediated via hormonal mechanisms (97) .…”