Nigeria: A vicious cycle: The growth of terrorism and counterterrorism in Nigeria, 1999–2016

Abstract

Violence in Nigeria has a tendency to shape-shift - from violent crimes, such as kidnapping and robbery, to various expressions of political violence, such as terrorism and insurgency, as well as police and military brutality. Indeed, because of this, it’s difficult to talk about one type of violence without appreciating not only how it relates to specific contextual conditions but also to other forms of violence, which often overlap each other. Since Nigeria returned to civilian rule in 1999 the term ‘terrorism’ has increasingly been a part of the national discourse on security. On the one hand, the government refers to countering terrorism within the framework of its national security agenda while on the other hand, insurgent movements, namely those that have emerged in the southern Niger Delta region as well as the northeast, have increasingly used terrorism as one of many tactics within their violent campaigns. Though one can certainly make the argument that terrorism in Nigeria has been a growing concern, particularly in the last decade, analysis tends to look at the phenomenon in isolation rather than considering how it is connected to other forms of violence, and more importantly, how state responses to organized violence drive non-state groups to adopt new tactics and escalate conflict. To fill this gap this article will look at how terrorism is understood and experienced in Nigeria and how its conceptualization shapes the practice of counter-terrorism. Our analysis will capture both international and domestic factors - including the impact of 9/11 and subsequent EU and US efforts to counter terrorism in Nigeria - as well domestic realities, namely the societal impact of Nigeria's 1999 transformation from long military to democratic rule as well as the more recent insurgencies in the Niger Delta (2005-2009) and in the northeast (2009-present). Combined, analyzing the domestic and international considerations over a 15-year time period will allow us to trace how the conceptualization of terrorism and practice of counter-terrorism has changed over time.

Assessing threatening uncertainties: Counterterrorism and everyday practices of preemptive policing in Ghana

“…In Nigeria, counterterrorism programs have equally grown and expanded since the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The USA alone, which is also the largest bilateral donor in Nigeria, increased its military assistance to US$11.1 million per year through, for example, security training and capacity-building (Giroux and Nwankpa, 2019). Although Ghana has not been directly affected by domestic terrorism, it has recently become a strategic key site for external counterterrorism interventions.…”

“…Empirically, the case of Ghana highlights the significance of transnational circulations and exchange of counterterrorism measures in shaping preemptive responses. In Africa, countries such as Kenya and Nigeria that have been exposed to extensive terrorist attacks and are also major partners in US-led counterterrorism efforts have been the key focus of scholarly attention (Aronson, 2013; Giroux and Nwankpa, 2019; Mogire and Agade, 2011; Prestholdt, 2019). Ghana, however, as a country that has not been hit by terror on home soil but is a main target of foreign counterterrorism interventions owing to its strategic location and role as an anchor of stability in West Africa, represents a unique case through which to illuminate the engagement with external security force assistance and exchange.…”